Job Satisfaction of Iowa Public School Principals

The purpose of this study was to examine the job satisfaction of Iowa public school principals and contrast the job satisfaction to the perceptions six years previously. The population for the 1999 and 2005 study was a sample of principals from Iowa K-12 schools. The study revealed significant differences in overall job satisfaction, in gender of the principals, years served as a principal, and type of schools in both studies. No significant differences were found for years served in present position. The results indicated that principals were overall more satisfied in the 2005 than they were in 1999. The findings confirmed that principals spent more time on the management of their schools than on leadership tasks. Principals were more satisfied with hygiene factors than with motivators in both studies.


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Analysis organizations. These studies helped determine the expectations of people working in these organizations and the elements that contributed to their level of job satisfaction.
However, these studies rarely include administrators. According to Friesen, Holdaway, and Rice (1983), "Investigation into job satisfaction has usually attempted to determine the extent to which employees at the production level obtain what they want from their jobs. The need to examine the job satisfaction of school administrators has frequently been overlooked" (p. 36). Other authors agree that little attention has been given to job satisfaction among school administrators serving in elementary and secondary schools (Mack, 2000;Sablatura, 2002;Rasmussen, 1990).
At the beginning of this new millennium, school improvement continues to occupy a prominent place. However states across the country are facing a potentially major problem in securing and retaining leadership personnel who can facilitate needed improvements in schools (National Association of Elementary School Principals and National Association of Secondary School principals, 1998). One reason this is occurring is that the role of principal continues to expand (Portin, Shen, & W illiams, 1998).
Principals are dealing with increased job-related stress, heightened accountability, new curriculum standards, and the task of educating increasingly diverse student populations.
Principals also face termination if their schools do not show instant results . Increased responsibilities and accountability without incentives-not the least o f which is com mensurate pay-have sorely hampered school districts' ability to attract quality candidates (Blackman & Fenwick, 2000). The people who are responsible for the future of our children are vastly underpaid. W hy should educators choose to become principals when senior teachers often earn more on an hourly basis than principals (Blackman & Fenwick, 2000;NAESP, 2003)?
District administrators and boards of education have not addressed the issue of job satisfaction as it relates to retaining principals and increasing the candidate pool (NAESP, NASSP 1998;NAESP 2003;Educational Research Service, 2000;Blackman & Fenwick, 2000). There is a gap in the literature regarding what principals must do compared to what they would prefer to be able to do in their role in the organization (Duke, 1988).
Unless principals are valued adequately for their rapidly expanding roles, communities will be unable to recruit and retain the leaders they need (IEL Task Force on the Principalship, 2000).
Job satisfaction is often ignored factor in attracting and retaining principals. To keep principals motivated and in their jobs, schools need to know what the principals personally find satisfying and dissatisfying about their jobs. Furthermore, there may be differences among principals in the way they perceive job satisfaction (Sablatura, 2002).

Statement of the Problem
The importance and need to study job satisfaction of school administrators has increased in the last decade as research show that fewer and few er highly qualified individuals are seeking the job of principal (ERS, 1998;Papa, Lankford, and Wyckoff, 2002;Ferrandino & Tirozzi, NASSP, 2000, Behrens, 2003. A shortage o f school leaders nation-wide was reported as early as the 1980s, and continued to be prevalent in the 1990s and into the beginning of the new century (ERS, 1998;NAESP, 2003). The same shortage is occurring in Iowa. About 625 of the 2,000 certified individuals in Iowa licensed to serve as secondary principals are not in administrative positions (Iowa Department of Education, 2001). They have chosen not to seek em ployment as educational leaders. Else (1998), director of the Institute for Educational Leadership (IEL) at UNI, found that within the next nine years 48% of Iow a's superintendents were expected to retire (IEL, 1998). M any principals are also considering retiring at the earliest age they become eligible within their state retirement system. Else & Sodoma (1999) found that over half of the sample (51.8 %) of principals were considering retirement in 10 years or more. The remaining respondents were considering retirement in 1-3 years (13.8 %), 4-6 years (17.9 %), and 7-9 years (16.1 %).
They planned to seek jobs outside of education. The same study also revealed that 67.2 % of the respondents were dissatisfied with the time they had outside o f their jobs to provide balance in their lives. Time demands (45%) and stress (38%) were the greatest dissatisfiers for Iowa principals.
Other information confirm s that a large number o f principals are also going to retire soon . In addition, the number of qualified principals who do not want to enter principalship at all is increasing (Rayfield & Diamantes, 2003). Thus, to attract new individuals and retain principals depends on whether the job meets the needs of individuals (Lacey, 2000).
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Job satisfaction is characterized as the degree to which the job fulfills or allows the fulfillment of the individual's needs (Locke, 1976). Locke said job satisfaction is the pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal o f one's job or job experiences. A lderfer (1972) claimed that satisfaction results from the self-appraisal of one's job or job experiences in relation to needs. Job satisfaction has been conceived as the affective orientation of individuals toward work roles that they presently occupy (Vroom, 1964). Satisfaction has been thought to refer to an affective response of an individual's values and needs (Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969). Job satisfaction and motivation, theoretically, are inherent aspects of work and the job itself (Harvey & France, 1997). M oreover, job satisfaction has been shown to be significantly related to em ployees' psychological health (Pearson, 1998). Principals who are more satisfied with their careers would be more likely to remain in the profession. Thus, to retain and motivate principals schools need a clear understanding of what principals personally find satisfying and dissatisfying about their jobs.
The study at the UNI IEL, Else and Sodoma (1999) showed that principals with more experience had a higher satisfaction in their sense of accomplishment from their work than those with less experience. W hile 85.6% of principals who were satisfied with their sense of accomplishment had considered leaving the principalship, this was not found to be related to income. In the same study 51% of principals who were satisfied with their job also seriously considered leaving the principalship for other than retirement reasons. The same study also revealed that principals with more experience were more satisfied with the time they had available for other activities in their lives than principals with less experience. The respondents' satisfaction was balanced across the years they served as a principal throughout the satisfaction level (very satisfied, moderately satisfied, neutral, moderately dissatisfied, and very dissatisfied) with no effect found on dissatisfaction.
Sixty-two percent of principals who spent more than 65% of their day on leadership activities were very satisfied with their sense of accomplishment from work.
However, principals who spent a small percentage o f their day on leadership activities were more dissatisfied with the time they had for other activities in their lives. Seventyone percent of principals who spent a high percentage of their day on leadership activities were also satisfied with the amount of time they actually spent in such activities. Few principals were very dissatisfied with the amount of time spent in leadership activities.
Since the 1999 study (Else & Sodoma) the role of the principal continued to change . The principal's job can feel overwhelming to both experienced and new administrators . Demands placed on principals have changed, but the profession has not changed to meet these demands, and tension is starting to show. Principals today too often are not ready to meet the demands (IEL Task Force on the Principalship, 2000). Research findings indicate that one-third of principals were not prepared for what the school expected of them (Schmidt, W eaver, & Aldredge, 2001 in recent years has made the job of principal more stressful and has discouraged teachers from taking positions in administration (NAESP, 2003). Principals are now being held more accountable for the performance of students and teachers while, at the same time, they are required to adhere to a growing number of government regulations (NCLB, 2001). In addition, overcrowded classrooms, safety issues, and teacher shortages are all creating additional pressures on principals (IEL Task Force on the Principalship, 2000).
The increase in pay is often not enough to entice people into the field (Blackman & Fenwick, 2000). Demands of the job and the time it consumes are two barriers for entering the principalship (Else & Sodoma, 1999). Principals confirm this, especially those at the high school level and women administrators. Marshall (1993) in her book explained, "Many career assistant principals observed that the tug between school and home is particularly difficult for women administrators. Many leave the high school level because they feel a real crunch at hom e" (p. 27). On the other hand, it is also well established that principals report a high degree of job satisfaction even though job is very demanding. It is an interesting observation, yet seemingly a conflicting one.
The principal is expected to be an instructional leader focusing on the teachinglearning process, demonstrating risk-taking and flexibility, encouraging diversity and equity, and reflecting and engaging in systematic inquiry and moral deliberation (Jacobson, 1996). Lezotte (1984) claimed that the most important factor in school reform was the principal's leadership. A successful school must have a strong leader, and the principal is the one who must provide this leadership. Edmonds (1979) confirms that strong leadership is vital to a successful school. Chubb (1987) noted that good schools have good principals, great schools have great principals, and weak schools have weak principals. The principal is a key figure in determining the ultimate success of any effort to develop school personnel. Thus, the principal plays a major role in school improvement (DuFour, 1991).
The dichotomy between the various managerial responsibilities and educational leadership leaves practicing administrators in a quandary (Rayfield & Diamantes, 2003).
Educational leadership is advocated in many principal preparation programs across the country; but principals are expected to be much more than managers (Owens, 2001). Else and Sodoma (1999) revealed that with more school autonomy and increased responsibilities, principals are forced to devote most of their time to managing schools instead o f to educational leadership. A study exam ining perceived success among school principals in M aine revealed that principals considered themselves to be m oderately to very' successful, particularly in management and maintenance areas, but did not seem to feel that they were leading their schools (Donaldson & Hausmann, 1999).

Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this study was to examine the job satisfaction of Iowa public school principals and contrast the current job satisfaction to the perceptions six years previously. Additional study allowed the researcher to look at the current demographic profile of Iowa public school principals as contrasted with the 1999 study.
Further analysis examined the job satisfaction o f Iowa public school principals based on sex, years served as a principal, and type of school. Finally, it was intended to determine the relationship between job satisfaction and leadership and management tasks and whether there is a significant change from 1999 to 2005 in motivators and hygiene factors for principals' job satisfaction as defined by H erzberg's theory.
Determining the job satisfaction level of principals in Iowa may provide insight into the support they need to feel satisfaction in their job and, thus, remain in their job. It is also important to understand why the school principal position is becoming less popular (Else & Sodoma, 1999;Cooley & Shen, 1999).
The Significance of the Study This research was directed at understanding what existing data and research can tell us about individuals who hold formal positions of responsibility and authority currently defined in schools. The study provides insight into the ability of schools to attract and retain principals. The com plexity of job satisfaction among school principals is examined. The study allows us to compare the level of satisfaction among Iowa elementary, middle, and high school principals. Thus, this study should be viewed as a complement to current research on the job satisfaction of public school principals. In addition, the findings of this study should also benefit to district administrators and boards o f education in redefining the job responsibilities of public school principals and providing ongoing professional development that will help building leaders in cope with changing job responsibilities.
This study is necessary because there is insufficient research investigating principals' perceptions of their job activities, major time requirements, and their ability to alter the focus of their jobs and their overall job satisfaction. It is time to direct research efforts towards discovering the com plexity of job satisfaction among principals. The need to study job satisfaction of administrators is heightened in educational organizations because research shows that fewer and fewer highly qualified individuals are seeking the principalship (Cooley & Shen, 1999). Indeed, many educators certified for the principalship are currently not in leadership positions (Behrens, 2003).
W ith a growing emphasis on accountability, standards, and high-stakes testing (NCLB, 2001), we have to wonder what impact the demands to raise student achievement and close the achievement gap have on principal job satisfaction. Since the initial study six years ago at the University of Northern Iowa, the state has experienced multiple budget cuts, minimal allowable growth in per pupil spending, a phase-out o f the budget guarantee in districts with declining enrollment, and implementation of teacher quality requirements. Endless mandates and union demands of all kinds, potential litigation, and violence concerns increase the pressures on principals. This study shows us whether all of these challenges combined with the requirements o f No Child Left Behind (2001) might reasonably be expected to affect job satisfaction.

Theoretical Framework
Human needs theories frequently have been the theoretical foundation for job satisfaction. The premise of human needs theories is that all humans have specific basic needs that drive their behavior. Satisfaction of these needs is associated with positive job attitudes.
Business and industry tried to identify the job characteristics that motivate their employees to perform the task. The method of increasing tasks of the workers has been called jo b enlargement. The concept of job enlargement is similar to what Herzberg (1959) has titled jo b enrichment. His theory postulated that one set of rewards contributes to job satisfaction and a separate set to job dissatisfaction. This Two-Factor Theory provides the theoretical framework for this study. The questions in the principal survey measured the intrinsic and extrinsic factors of job satisfaction.
H erzberg's Two-Factor Theory posits that workers are more likely to be motivated by intrinsic job factors (motivators) related to the job itself than by extrinsic job factors (hygiene factors) related to job context. Motivators lead to satisfaction, but lack of motivators doesn't mean there is dissatisfaction. Factors that lead to satisfaction (achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and possibility o f growth) are mainly unipolar; that is, they contribute very little to job dissatisfaction.
The hygiene factors do not satisfy workers, but their absence will lead to dissatisfaction. In other words, the hygiene factors or maintenance events lead to job dissatisfaction because of a need to avoid unpleasantness. The motivator factors lead to job satisfaction because of a need for growth or self-actualization. Hygiene factors represent the environm ent to which people are constantly trying to adjust. The hygiene factors are the m ajor environmental aspects of work. The reason they have been named hygiene factors is that the dissatisfiers essentially describe the environm ent and serve primarily to prevent job dissatisfaction, while having little effect on positive job attitudes.
This is an analogy to the medical use of the term hygiene meaning "preventive and environm ental." Hygiene factors can be conceived o f as baseline expectations of workers.
They do not possess the characteristics necessary for giving an individual a sense of growth. To feel that one has grown depends on achievement in tasks that have meaning to the individual, and since the hygiene factors do not relate to the task, they are powerless to give such meaning to the individual. Growth depends on some achievements, but achievement requires a task. The motivators are task factors and, thus, are necessary for growth. They provide the psychological stimulation by which the individuals can be activated toward their self-actualization need (Herzberg et al., 1993).
H erzberg's theory argues that motivators (intrinsic job factors) are the only factors that lead to job satisfaction. He identifies six job dimensions as motivators and 10 as hygiene factors (Herzberg, M ausner, & Snyderman, 1993). These factors have been commonly used in educational job satisfaction research (Schmidt, 1976;Friesen & Holdaway, 1983).
Job longevity also has been suggested as a factor associated with job satisfaction. Locke, Fitzpatrick, and White (1983) claimed, "Studies have shown that, typically, job satisfaction increases linearly or curvilinearly with age and /or job tenure" (p. 346).
People who are on the job longer are fairly satisfied with their jobs.
Satisfaction is also associated with sex, years served in the position, education, and age. Herzberg, Mausner, Peterson, and Capwell (1957) claimed that job satisfaction has a tendency to increase with age because the individual adjusts to his/her work and life situation. As workers grow older, job satisfaction might tend to increase because the extrinsic rewards of work tend to increase with age.
In this study, a random sample of 300 principals stratified by elementary, middle, and high schools was used. H erzberg's original data were obtained through qualitative methods. Using quantitative methodology to collect data, the findings of this study provide a more comprehensive view of Herzberg's theory. Furthermore, the m ethodology used to collect and analyze this data within Iowa can serve as a model for conducting sim ilar research on school principals not only in Iowa, but also in other states of the nation.

Definition of the Terms
Barriers: Obstructions, either intrinsic or extrinsic, which create real or perceived boundaries or limitations (Shakeshaft, 1987).
Career: A person's general course of action through some or all of life with the specific purpose to support a chosen lifestyle.
D issatisfier: Something that is not attractive about a position to a person and that would not provide the person, in that position, intrinsic and/or extrinsic rewards (D. Else, personal com munication, February 18, 2005).
Elementary school: Any school consisting of grades K through 5 or K through 6.
Effectiveness: The ability to accomplish desired or intended results.
Extrinsic m otivation: Rewards associated with the fair day's work focusing on the condition of the work (Sergiovanni, 2001).
High school: Any school consisting of grades 9 through 12 or grades 10 through 12.
Hygiene factors: Sources in a person's environment, which, if they are not achieved, lead to negative attitudes. They are also known as extrinsic, maintenance, or job content factors (Herzberg et al., 1993).
Instructional leader: A title for the principal responsible for implementing curricular changes and improving instruction. The instructional leader is involved in all educational activities that impact student achievement.
Intrinsic m otivation: Internal satisfactions a person receives in the process of performing a particular action (Daft, 1999).
Job activities: Those responsibilities that principals carry out during the school year.
Job satisfaction: "Simply how people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs" (Spector, 1997, p. 2).
Junior high school: Any school consisting of grades 6 through 9; usually grades 7-8.
Leadership: The quality which enables an individual within a given setting to establish an organizational vision, to motivate and inspire others to embrace that vision and achieve and maintain organizational and individual goals (Guthrie & Reed, 1991).
M anagement: Coordinating people and resources in an organization (Patterson, 1993).
M iddle school: Any school consisting of grades through 5 through 9, or 6 through 9.
M otivation: The complex forces, drives, needs, tension states, or other mechanisms that start and maintain voluntary activity toward the achievement o f personal goals (Hoy & Miskel, 1996).
M otivator: Factors in a person's environment, which, if achieved, lead to satisfaction, but if they, are not achieved, no satisfaction will occur. This term is also known as intrinsic factor .
Overall job satisfaction: A state of satisfaction when perceiving the jo b as a whole rather than o f its parts. "The overall evaluative judgm ent about one's jo b " (W eiss & Cropanzano, 1996, p. 5).
Principal endorsement or principal license: State of Iowa authorization for the holder to serve as a principal.
Principalship: Position held by a principal.
Recruitment program s: The systemized enticement of potential candidates to a position of employment. This selection can be initiated by one organization on behalf of another and usually includes incentives to interest the candidate.
Retirem ent: "Voluntary or involuntary termination of employment or voluntary service because o f age, disability, illness, or personal choice" (Shafritz et al.,p. 400).
Satisfiers: Drives and inner forces that start voluntary activity toward the achievement of personal goals and recognition. Something that would attract a person to a position and once in that position, provide the person with intrinsic and/or extrinsic rewards (D. Else, personal communication, February 18, 2005).
Years served as principal: The demographic factor measured by number of years an individual has served in a principal position.

Research Questions
This study is designed to determine perceptions o f job satisfaction by Iowa public school principals and contrast perceptions of job satisfaction reported six years previously. These questions may reveal satisfaction variables and changes in these perceptions over time.
1. W hat is the overall level of job satisfaction of Iowa public school principals?
(a) W hat is the overall level of job satisfaction according to sex, years served as a principal, years served in present school, and type of school? 3. The principals' responses are delimited to the time periods during which data are collected.

Limitations of the Study
The study was limited in these ways: 1. Data for the study are based on the self-reported perceptions o f the principals regarding their job satisfaction. This fact may have affected their responses and could lead to improper interpretations causing inaccurate responses.
2. The collection of data is subject to the limitation of survey research.

Organization of the Study
This study o f job satisfaction of Iowa public school principals is presented in five chapters. In Chapter 1, an overview of the problem, research and theory, research questions, variables of the study and delimitations is presented. Chapter 2, "Review of the

History of the Principalship
After public schools were established in the United States, a political model of governance prevailed (Guthrie, 1990). A bureaucratic model replaced the political model of school governance as school systems grew in the size. The main aim of the model was to help eliminate graft and political patronage and to improve the rapidly growing schools (Button, 1993). Bureaucratic organizations relied on the uniform application of impersonal rules and standardized procedures to achieve managerial control. The employees were evaluated on the standards of performance rather than by results (Guthrie, 1990).
At the end o f the 1800s, a principal teacher was responsible for monitoring and controlling the other teachers. He also served as the instructional leader. W ith the growth of schools and more pupils, new duties emerged for the principal teacher. M anagement, instructional leadership, hiring of people and maintaining the school building became the main activities of principal's work. "Principal teacher" became just "principal." The role o f principal later acquired a political dimension, through which the principals sought to understand and transform public expectations into formal decisions and authoritative actions (Cuban, 1988). W ith new accountabilities and responsibilities, the role of principals became more diverse and demanding.
Definitions of the principal's roles and responsibilities have changed over time.
According to Seyfarth, "Three of the themes that appear in recent writings are the principal as a manager-by-results, the principal as cultural leader, and the principal as Instruction, (5) Assessment, (6) Organizational Management, (7) Fiscal management, (8) Political Management.
According to Sergiovanni (2001), in recent years, more emphasis is being given to what principals in schools are supposed to accomplish as a way of defining the job. He explained: The idea behind this trend is to determine the outcomes that schools should pursue and students should achieve. Much less attention is given to pointing out the processes that must be used. Presumably, principals in schools are expected to do whatever is necessary to achieve the outcomes. Defining the job this way has the advantage of freeing principals and others with whom they work from bureaucratic restrictions and constraints, (p. 6) W ith new accountabilities and responsibilities, the role of principals became more changing and demanding.

History on Job Satisfaction
The first studies of job satisfaction appeared at the beginning of the 20 century. Levenstein (1912) surveyed the job satisfaction of German workers. M unsterberg (1913) in his research came to the understanding that not all workers were dissatisfied with monotonous, repetitive jobs. Fryer (1926), who studied the relationship of job satisfaction to age, education, religion, and marital status, found no significant relationships in a sample of male applicants for commercial jobs. Thordndike (1934) reported low correlations between aptitude test scores and job satisfaction ten years later.
The first really com prehensive treatment of the topic was H oppock's Job Satisfaction (1935). He observed more satisfied workers than he had expected to find. He found that higher group satisfaction for a group of teachers seemed to be associated with better mental health, better human relationships, more favorable family social status, age, having religious beliefs, feelings o f success, and working in a larger community. In the total com munity group, job satisfaction was related to sex (males were more satisfied), occupational level (workers were more satisfied as their job level progressed from unskilled manual to professional managerial and executive), and age (older workers were more satisfied). Hoppock concluded that jobs can be measured reliably. The split-half reliability index was .93 for his four-item scale. H oppock's results stimulated interest in surveys of satisfaction of occupational groups and in correlational studies.
Great contributions to the area of job satisfaction were made during the 1920s and 1930s included early research represented by the Hawthorne studies (Roethlisberger and Dickson, 1939) and those conducted by Mayo and associates (1945). The results demonstrated the need to change the focus in work from economic incentives, a characteristic of scientific management (Taylor, 1911), to human relationships. Job satisfaction was determined more by the work groups and supervisor than by pay, physical working conditions, and fringe benefits.
In following years, job satisfaction was the focus of repeated studies. By 1972, Kahn (1972) estimated there were over 2,000 studies of job satisfaction, and the number today is certainly larger. Relative to work, job satisfaction remains the most common topic of study. As an independent variable, job satisfaction is seen as the cause o f other phenom ena such as productivity and motivation. As a dependent variable, we can see job satisfaction as being caused by other conditions such as the nature of the jo b and individual characteristics of the person or the job.

Defining Job Satisfaction
Despite the fact that a uniform definition of job satisfaction does not exist (Siegel & Lane, 1982), job satisfaction is generally considered to be the overall feeling a worker has about a job. Hoppock (1935) defined job satisfaction as any combination of psychological, physiological, and environmental circumstances that cause a person to say, "I am satisfied with my jo b . " Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969) defined job satisfaction as "the feelings the worker has about his jo b " (p. 6). These feelings were based on the individual's perceptions of the differences between what was expected as a fair and reasonably return and what was actually experienced, in relation to the available alternatives. According to Young, (1984), job satisfaction has implications for the individual related to physical and mental health, for the organization related to the acceptance of a good performance on the job, and for society related to quality and quantity of life. Locke (1969)

M easurement o f Job Satisfaction
The typical methods of measuring job satisfaction are interviews or questionnaires that vary prim arily in their directness in assessing the concept. Both of these methods have advantages and disadvantages. The interviews are expensive and time consuming.
On the other hand, they can provide the interviewer with valuable information, which had not been preplanned by the researcher (Spector, 1997). Questionnaires are less expensive, less time-consuming, and can be used to survey a large number o f people. The disadvantage is that questionnaires provide less extensive information.
The most direct method is asking single question e.g. "How satisfied are you with your jo b ?" A less direct approach uses a series o f items that probe various com ponents or indicators o f job satisfaction.
The scale contains 36 items and uses a summated rating scale format. Each item is a statement that is either favorable or unfavorable about an aspect of the job. From a sample of 3,067 individuals, coefficient alphas ranged from .60 for the co-worker to .91 for the total scale. The widely accepted minimum standard for internal consistency is .70 (Nunnaly, 1978). Test-retest reliability reflects the stability of the scale over time.
Validity is provided by studies that compare different scales with one another about the same employees (Smith et al., 1969), job characteristics as assessed with Job Diagnostic Survey (Hackman & Oldham, 1975), such as age, organization level, absence, organizational commitment, leadership practices, intention to quit the job, and turnover (Spector, 1985). Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969) have developed the Job Descriptive Index (JDI), which is an indirect measure of satisfaction that consists of word or phrase descriptions of five job facets (supervision, pay, work, promotions, and co-workers).
Reliability and validity data are available on this instrument. The Job Descriptive Index has probably been the most used measure of job satisfaction. The scale assesses five facets: (1) Work, (2) Pay, (3) Promotion, (4) Supervision, (5) Co-workers.
Compiling the five facet scores into an overall score has often done by many researchers very often in spite of fact that it is not recommended by Ironson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson and Paul, (1989). The total score on the JDI is supposed to measure total job satisfaction. However, it is now hypothesized that total job satisfaction is more then the sum of the facets of job satisfaction (Scarpello & Campbell, 1983).
An extensive body of research utilized the Job Description Index exists, providing good validity evidence of the JDI. The limitation is the small number of facets and the fact that some items might not be applied to all employee groups (Cook, Hepworth, Wall, & War, 1981). However, this criticism is true of all job satisfaction scales.
Another instrument often utilized in educational research is The M innesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) developed by W eiss, Dawis, England, and Lofquist (1967). This instrument exists in two forms: a 100-item long version and a 20-item short form. Each item is rated on a Likert-type scale ranging from "not satisfied" to "extremely satisfied." The short form measures these 20 facets: (1) Activity, (2) Independence, (3) Variety, (4) Social status, (5) Supervision (human relations), (6) Supervision (technical), Moral values, (8) Security, (9) Social Service, (10) Authority, (11) Ability utilization, Recognition, (20 Achievement. The facets are in many cases more specific than in the JDI or JSS. For the short form, several studies have reported acceptable internal consistency reliabilities for intrinsic, extrinsic, and total scores (Spector, 1997). Despite the fact that both forms of the MSQ are recommended, the short form at one-fifth the length would be sufficient (Spector, 1997).
H erzberg's Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959)  for the facet items is a 7-point scale ranging from "extremely dissatisfied" to "extremely satisfied." The global satisfaction is also measured by a 7-point scale ranging from "disagree strongly" to agree strongly" .
The Job in General Scale (JIG; Ironson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson, and Paul, 1989) was developed to assess overall job satisfaction rather than facets. Its format contains 18 items and each item is an adjective or short phrase about the job. All items are combined for a total score. Overall job satisfaction is not the sum of individual facets, but it should be assessed with a general scale (Ironson et al., 1989). Internal consistency coefficients range from .91 to .95 and have good internal consistency reliability. It is assumed that each facet makes an equal contribution to global satisfaction, but it is unlikely that each facet has the same importance for every individual. That means that final sum of facets is only an approximate measure of overall job satisfaction, but it may not exactly match the global satisfaction of every individual.
Job satisfaction could be explained by overall job satisfaction or by satisfaction with specific factors. Spector (1997) Lawler (1969) defined facet satisfaction as people's affective reactions to a particular aspect of their job and overall job satisfaction as a person's affective reactions to his/her total work role. He claimed that overall job satisfaction should not be seen as the sum of satisfaction with individual facets. His opinion is in the coincidence with Ironson (Ironson et al., 1989) who claimed that "the sum of facets is an approximation of overall job satisfaction, but it may not exactly match global satisfaction of individuals." (p. 19). On the other hand, this his view contradicts the view of Dunn and Stephens (1972). Camman, Fichman, Jenkins, and Klesh (1979)

authors of The Michigan
Organizational Assessment Questionnaire, designed their instrument to measure overall satisfaction.
Besides the scales discussed, many other job satisfaction scales exist and are widely utilized in educational research.

Theories of M otivation
Several theoretical approaches to study of job satisfaction are discussed in the literature (Thompson, M cNamara, and Hoyle (1997). Campbell, Dunnette, Lawler, and W eik (1970) divided the most popular theories into two groups: content theories and process theories. Content theories attempt to specify only what motivates behavior. They delineate specific needs, motives, behavior expectancies, and antecedents to behavior, or they relate behavior to outcomes or consequences. Process theories attempt to define major variables that are necessary to explain choice, effort, the persistence of a certain behavior and try to specify how the major variables interact to influence outcomes (Hoy & Miskel, 1982).
Cognition is the use of mental representations to understand human perceptions, thoughts, knowledge, motivation, and behavior (Hoy & Miskel, 1996). Kanfer (1990) organized cognitive theories into three related paradigms: need and values theories, After the popularization of cognitive approaches, new models o f information processing and motivation emerged. Information processing is a system o f representation that bridges the gap between the brain, nervous system and behavior. Its representations take the forms of cognitive structures and processes for accessing and using the information (Hunt, 1991). According to this theory, individuals have internal mental models (symbol systems) of the external world that guide tasks such as problem-solving, interacting, and decision making. Characteristics of information processing models are: rational, limited capacity, expert, and cybernetic.
M ost contemporary theories of motivation hold that the major determinants of human behavior are concepts such as beliefs, needs, perceived efficacy, attribution, expectations, goals, and anticipations that individuals have about future events (Campbell & Pritchard, 1976).
Human needs theories have frequently been the theoretical foundation for job satisfaction. The premise of human needs theories is that all humans have specific basic needs that drive their behavior. Satisfaction of these needs is associated with positive job attitudes. Some authors claim that need theory is the most popular in job research (Spector, 1997;Thompson, et al., 1997;W eiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Popularity of need satisfaction model is attributed to its simplicity (Salancik & Pffefer, 1977).
A number of important ideas exist about motivating people in organizations.
Employees are motivated to act to satisfy various needs. Good motivation leads to better productivity of work. One o f the most important parts of leader's job is to motivate people to accomplish a common vision, goals, and objectives of the organization (Daft, 1999). The leadership approach to motivation is focused on the higher needs of employees. The role of a leader is to create such organizational conditions in which em ployees' needs are met simultaneously with the needs of organization. School leaders agree that motivation is a critical determinant o f performance in organization, but there is less agreement on the word motivation (Daft, 1999). Many definitions of the word motivation exist in the in literature. M otivation has been defined as "those processes within an individual that stimulate behavior and channel it in ways that should benefit the organization as a whole" (M iner, 1980, p. 158). M iddlemist andHirst (1988, p. 144) claimed that motivations are "the forces acting on and coming from within a person that account, in part, for the willful direction of one's effort toward the achievem ent of specific goals." Pinder (1998) defined motivation as a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual's being to initiate work-related behavior and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration. M otivation is the extent to which persistent effort is directed toward organizational objectives (Lunenburg & Orstein, 2000).
M otivation means that a person works hard, the person keeps at his or her work, and the person directs his or her behavior toward appropriate goals (Johns, 1983, p. 173 Vroom (1964)) developed the first complete version of the expectancy theory with applications to organizational settings. The approach is also called valenceinstrumentality-expectancy VIE or value theory. V room 's theory examined motives through the perception of what a person believes will happen. Expectancy theory is concerned with the thinking process that individuals use to achieve rewards. Expectancy is the strength of belief that a job-related effort will result in certain performance (Lunenburg & Orstein, 2000). It is an action-outcome association. Values range from zero, indicating no subjective probability that an act will be followed by an outcome, to 1, indicating certainty that the act will be followed by the outcome (Vroom, 1964, p. 18).
Instrumentality, on the other hand, is outcome-outcome association. The values range can be from -1, indicating a belief that attainment of the second outcome is certain without the first outcome and impossible with it, to +1, indicating that the first outcome is believed to be a necessary and sufficient condition for attainment o f the second outcome (Vroom, 1964, p. 18). Valence is the strength of an em ployee's preference for a particular outcome or reward. It is assumed that valence can take a wide range of both positive and negative values (Vroom, 1964, p. 15). Expectancy theory is personalized to subordinates' needs and goals (Daft, 1999). In school settings, a principal's responsibility is to match the needs of the teachers with the goals of the school and school district.

Research on Expectancy Theory
Since the 1970s, investigation of the expectancy theory has significantly grown. Mowday (1978) concluded that school principals with higher expectancy motivation were more active in attempting to influence district policy than principals with lower expectancy motivation. Pulvino (1979) found principal consideration was significantly related to expectancy motivation of teachers. Findings of Miskel, M cDonald, and Bloom (1983) suggested that expectancy motivation of teachers is positively related to student achievement, student and teachers' attitudes, and communication among educators.

Critique of Expectancy Model
In spite of fact that the expectancy theory obtained the credit of researchers' approval, some problems emerged. Campbell and Pritchard (1976) claimed that expectancy theory had exceeded the measures to test it adequately. Staw and Cummings (1990) noted that the findings of research do not support the notion that individuals actually engaged in detail cognitive arithmetic before deciding at what level to perform.
Some researchers were in doubt whether the model was complete in its present form (Scholl, 1981;W alker & Thomas, 1982 (Ross & Fletcher, 1986). Attribution theory is about how people make causal explanations and about how they answer questions beginning with the word "why" ? It focuses on causal explanations that individuals make about past behaviors in regard to achievem ent efforts, and how attributions influence behavior through their effects on expectancies (Hoy & Miskel, 1996 (Lewis & Daltroy, 1990). Kelley (1976) advanced H eider's theory adding the factors of consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus, which affect the formation of attributions. Jones and Davis (1965) described how an "alert perceiver" might infer another's intentions and personal dispositions from his/her behavior. Inferences are correspondent when the behavior and the disposition can be assigned similar labels.

Research on Attribution Theory
W einer used the attribution concept to create a cognitive choice model of motivation (1985,1986). He posited that information gained from people's feedback and rewards is assessed through locus, stability, and controllability. Ability and effort are internal factors and luck and task difficulty are external factors on the locus dimension.
The stability designated causes as constant or varying over time. Effort is unstable but an individual's aptitude for a task is thought to be relatively fixed. Controllability refers to personal responsibility. Effort is considered as controllable, while ability and luck are believed to be beyond personal control (Weiner, 1986;Kanfer, 1990;Graham, 1991).
Evaluation of Attribution Theory Graham (1991) criticized attribution theory as no more then naive psychology that is just common sense. On the other hand, findings of other researchers support attribution theory and effects of expectancy for future performance (Miner, 1980;W einer, 1986;Kanfer, 1990).

Goal-Setting Theory
Goal setting theory as a cognitive process approach of work motivation became increasingly popular during the 1970s. Goal theory was developed as an extension of attribution theory. Goals influence behavior in school organization and goal theory is a valuable tool for educational administrators. Every modern educational organizational or school utilizes some form of goal setting. Strategic planning or management by objectives requires development and stating of specific goals. Locke (1968Locke ( , 1984Locke ( , 1990 and Garry P. Latham (1984Latham ( , 1990 are recognized authors for their contribution to the development of goal theory, or the techniques of goal setting. A goal is defined as what an individual is trying to accomplish in a job. Values and goals are two determinants of behavior. Locke and Latham (1990) claimed that goalsetting has positive effect on motivation and performance and these positive effects generalize across settings, subjects, performance criteria, tasks, time spans, and different methods of goal setting. Specific, difficult goals and feedback improve work quality, raise job satisfaction, and produce pride in achievement (Locke & Latham, 1984).
The Content Theories of M otivation M aslow's Need Hierarchy Theory M aslow 's need hierarchy theory is one of the most widely discussed theories in the study of human motivation. Campbell and Pritchard (1976) and Steers and Porter (1979)  Undoubtly these psychological needs are the most prepotent of all needs. W hat this means specifically is that in a human being who is missing everything in life in an extreme fashion, it is most likely that the major motivation would be the physiological needs rather then any others. A person who is lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else. If all the needs are unsatisfied and the organism is then dominated by the psychological needs, all other needs may become simply non-existent or be pushed into the background. (p. 69) The second level o f needs includes safety and security needs. They reflect the desire to live in a peaceful, stable society. To the second level of needs M aslow explained: "If the physiological needs are relatively well gratified, there then emerges a new set of needs, which we may categorize roughly as the safety needs" (M aslow, 1970, p. 71).
The third level includes belonging, love, and social needs, values, which are very important for life in modem society. Maslow described the third level o f needs: One thing that must be stressed at this point is that love is not synonymous with sex. Sex may be studied as purely physiological need. Ordinarily sexual behavior is multi-determined, that is to say, determined not only by sexual but also by other needs, chief among which are the love and affection needs. Also not to be overlooked is the fact that the love needs involve both giving and receiving love, (p. 73) The fourth level o f needs includes esteem needs. They reflect the desire to be highly respected and recognized by others. Status, achievement, recognition lead to satisfaction of esteem needs. On esteem needs, Maslow noted: We have been learning more and more o f the dangers of basing self-esteem on the opinions of others rather than on real capacity, competence, and adequacy to the task. The most stable and therefore most healthy self-esteem is based on deserved respect from others rather than on external fame or celebrity and unwarranted adulation, (p. 74) The highest need level is the need for self-actualization. M aslow considered selfactualization as a process, not an end state. He explained: Even if all these needs are satisfied, we may still often (if not always) expect that a new discontent and restlessness will soon develop, unless the individual is doing what he is fitted for. A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately at peace with himself. W hat a man can be, he must be. This need we may call self-actualization, (p. 74) There are some implications for school management on the basis of M aslow 's theory.
There are opportunities to motivate employees through management style, job design, com pany events, and compensation packages. M aslow 's needs are related to one another and are arranged in a hierarchy. A common misconception is that one need must be satisfied before the next level o f needs emerges. That is, low-order needs take priority-they must be satisfied before higherorder needs are activated. Physiological needs are satisfied before safety needs, safety needs are satisfied before social needs, etc. Maslow him self (1970) maintained that seldom are all lower order needs totally satisfied and that individuals may proceed up the hierarchy without absolute fulfillm ent of basic needs. He further maintained that for most individuals lower order needs are regularly satisfied and higher order needs are seldom met.
Research on M aslow 's Need Theory M aslow 's need hierarchy theory is very popular and accepted but its validity is dubious (Locke, 1991). There is little research evidence to support it (Pinder, 1984), and other studies have found only modest support (Steers & Porter, 1979;Landy & Becker, 1987;Cherington, 1991). Even though M aslow 's theory lacks scientific support, it is quite well-known and is the first theory of motivation to which many people are exposed.

A lderfer's ERG Theory
Another well-known and recognized content theory of motivation is A lderfer's existence, relatedness, and growth (ERG). His theory has three levels and A lderfer has been influenced by M aslow 's need hierarchy. In contrast to Maslow, A ldefer's theory is more consistent with empirical findings. Alderfer him self claimed that his theory was developed to improve the explanatory power and the empirical validity of M aslow 's hierarchy of needs theory (Alderfer & Guzzo, 1979).
Existence refers to our concern with the basic material requirements of existence. This category corresponds to M aslow 's self-actualization and internal esteem needs.
On growth need Alderfer said: Growth needs impel a person to make creative or productive effects on him self and the environment. Satisfaction of growth needs comes from a person engaging problems, which call upon him to utilize his capacities fully and may include requiring him to develop additional capacities. A person experiences a greater sense of wholeness and fullness, as a human being by satisfying growth needs. Thus, satisfaction of growth needs depends on a person finding the opportunities to be what he is most fully and to become what he can. (p. 12) The fundamental generalization of ERG theory is that individual growth proceeds in cycles of differentiation, during which people develop a more complex awareness of themselves, and integration, during which people consolidate the many com ponents of their personalities (Hoy & Miskel, 1982).
In addition to the reduction in the number of levels, the ERG theory differs from M aslow's in the following three ways. First, unlike M aslow's hierarchy, the ERG theory allows for different levels of needs to be acquired simultaneously. Second, the ERG theory allows the order of the needs to be different. Third, the ERG theory acknowledges that if a higher level need remains unfulfilled, the person may regress to lower level needs that appear easier to satisfy (Hoy & M iskel, 1982). This is known as the frustration-regression principle.
Thus, while ERG theory presents a model of progressive needs, the hierarchical level is not rigid. This flexibility allows the ERG theory to account for a wider range of observed behaviors. School administrators must recognize that employees have multiplied needs to satisfy simultaneously. If growth opportunities are not provided to employees, they may regress to relatedness needs. If the manager is able to recognize this situation, then steps can be taken to concentrate on relatedness needs until the subordinate is able to pursue growth again.

Research on the ERG Theory
Most research tends to support A lderfer's theory over M aslow 's and H erzberg's theories. Some researchers recommend ERG theory over M aslow 's theory because the latter was not aimed specifically toward the study of employee motivation in the workplace (Schneider & Alderfer, 1973). Overall, many behavioral scientists tend to view ERG theory as the most current, valid, and researchable theory based on the need concept (Alderfer, 1977).

Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg, M ausner and Snyderman (1959) authored of a popular and exciting motivation theory that builds on M aslow 's work. The new theory has been called motivation-hygiene theory, the two-factor theory, dual-factor theory or H erzberg's theory. This theory has been widely accepted by school administrators (Hoy & Miskel, 1996). The two-factor theory looks for factors that cause motivation. Its effort is not concentrated on needs energized within individual, rather its effort is focused on the work environment in order to identify factors that arouse in people either positive or negative attitudes toward their work. A semi-structured interview served as a means for gathering data.  used a modified version of Flanagan's (1954) critical incidents technique.
Two hundred engineers and accountants who represented a cross-section of Pittsburgh industry were interviewed. They were asked about events they had experienced at work that either resulted in a marked improvement in their job satisfaction or led to a marked reduction in jo b satisfaction. The interviewer began by asking the engineers and accountants to recall a time when they felt exceptionally good about their jobs. Keeping in mind the time that had brought about the good feelings, the interviewers proceeded to probe for the reasons why the engineers and accountants felt as they did.
The employees were also asked if the feelings of satisfaction in regard to their work had affected their performance, their personal relationships, and their well-being. Finally, the nature of the sequence of events that served to return the w orker's attitude to "normal" was elicited. Then the interview was repeated but the employees were asked to describe their negative feelings about their jobs. Results were consistent across the various subjects. Reported good feelings were associated and related with the job itself, it means with intrinsic or psychological factors. Herzberg named these factors motivators, or "job satisfiers." They include achievement, recognition, responsibility, work itself, and the possibility of growth. These factors influenced the motivation. Herzberg believed that when motivators are present, employees are satisfied and motivated. Bad feelings, on the other hand, were associated with the environment surrounding the job, or extrinsic or psychical factors. These factors are working conditions, pay and security, company policies, supervisors, interpersonal relationships, and salary. Herzberg named these factors hygiene fa cto rs or "job dissatisfiers," because they are preventative and environmental. W hen hygiene factors are poor, work is dissatisfying. Good hygiene factors remove the dissatisfaction, but they do not in themselves cause people to become highly satisfied and motivated to work . The results of the investigation led him to the conclude that certain variables in the work situation, which he named "satisfiers," lead to overall job satisfaction, but played an extremely small part in producing job dissatisfaction, while other variables, which he named "dissatisfiers," lead to job dissatisfaction but did not lead to job satisfaction. Herzberg in his study challenged the traditional model by purposing that some job aspects lead to job satisfaction some, to dissatisfaction. He explained: In summary, two essential findings were derived from this study. First, the factors involved in producing job satisfaction were separate and distinct from the factors that led to job dissatisfaction. Since separate factors needed to be considered depending on whether job satisfaction of job dissatisfaction was involved, it followed that these two feelings were not the obverse of each other. They are not opposites, rather they are separate and distinct dimensions of a person's attitude about work. Thus, the opposite of job satisfaction would not be job satisfaction but rather no job satisfaction; similarly, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is no job dissatisfaction, not satisfaction with one's job. The fact that job satisfaction is made up of two unipolar traits is not unique, but it remains a difficult concept to grasp. (1971, pp. 75-76) Hygiene factors are lower-level needs. Their absence leads to dissatisfaction but the correction of these needs will not lead to satisfaction. The motivators are higher-level needs. They increase the job satisfaction beyond the neutral point, but when the motivators are not gratified, only minimal dissatisfaction results.
The role of school leaders as implied in the two-factor theory is important. Daft (1999) said: "The leader's role is to go beyond the removal of dissatisfiers to the use of motivators to meet higher level needs and propel employees toward greater achievement and satisfaction" (p. 244).
If the motivation-theory holds, management not only must provide hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction, but also must provide factors intrinsic to the work itself in order for employees to be satisfied with their jobs.
Herzberg explained that jo b enrichment is required for intrinsic motivation, and that it is a continuous management process. According to Herzberg: The job should have sufficient challenge to utilize the full ability of the employee. Employees who demonstrate increasingly levels of ability should be given increasing levels of responsibility. If a job cannot be designed to use an em ployee's full abilities, then the firm should consider automating the task or replacing the employee with one who has a lower level of skill. If a person cannot be fully utilized, then there will be a motivational problem, (p. 31)

Comparison of Two-Factor Theory with Need Hierarchy and ERG Theories
The motivation-hygiene theory has been widely accepted and used as the theoretical rationale for numerous studies in education. A close conceptual relationship exists with M aslow 's need theory, A lderfer's ERG theory, and H erzberg's Two-Factor theory (Lunenburg & Orstein, 2000 (Hoy & M iskel, 1982).
Critique of the Two-Factor Theory H erzberg's theory has been often criticized in spite of the fact that his approach is systematic and his language understandable. For some critics, his theory is regarded as methodologically bound, that is, tied to its method (King, 1970). King found five distinct versions of the two-factor theory in the literature and only limited support existed for any of these five versions. O ther critics questioned the mutual exclusiveness of satisfaction and dissatisfaction dimensions. Do the motivator factors contribute only to satisfaction and the hygiene factors only to dissatisfaction? (Bockman, 1971). Salancik and Pfeffer (1977) claimed that the formulation is theoretically weak. Campbell, Dunnette, Lawler, and Weick (1970) explained: "The most meaningful conclusion is we can draw is that the two-factor theory has now served its purpose and should be altered or respectively laid aside" (p. 381). Steers and Porter (1979) are somewhat more moderate. They claimed that Herzberg's theory came during a time when there was an increased need to understanding the role motivation played in organizations.
His theory is important also for school administrators in order to think about what motivates teachers. Instead of concentrating on extrinsic factors as means o f motivation as are salary, working condition, job security, H erzberg's theory enabled school administrators to concentrate to the intrinsic factors such as recognition and achievement which increases the job satisfaction and lead to better work performance.

Research on Two-Factor Theory
The motivation-hygiene theory has been subjected to extensive research with contradictory results. Little research on the motivation-hygiene theory has been done in last 15 years (Daft, 1999   study and came to the conclusion that their findings were close to those found in Herzberg's study. Besides work itself, five motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement and possibility of growth) appeared more frequently in the high job attitude situations than in low attitude situations (Herzberg, 1971, p. 100).
On the other hand, four hygiene factors (company policy and administration, interpersonal relationships with subordinates, supervision, working condition and security) were more frequent in low job attitude situations than in high attitude situations (Herzberg, 1971, p. 101). Further, there was no variation found in analyzing personal characteristics in age, job classification, education, and personality characteristics.
In a study among Finnish supervisors, Herzberg used the same written critical incident method developed by Schwartz et al. (1963). The findings showed that five of the six motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, work itself) were found to be significantly unidirectional. Possibility o f growth appeared more in lowfeeling sequences.
Four hygiene factors were found more often in low job attitudes sequences than in high attitude experiences (supervision, company policy and administration, working conditions, and interpersonal relations with peers).
In this study a m otivator was never found more frequently in the low attitudes experiences, nor was a hygiene need more frequently found for the positive attitudes (Herzberg, 1971, p. 102). This study confirmed H erzberg's theory that motivators contribute more to high satisfaction while hygiene factors contribute more to job dissatisfaction regardless o f the method or nationality.
The sample in H erzberg's next study was composed of 50 women employed by the United States government. These 50 women were involved in research and analytical work in economics, languages, mathematics and engineering on a high professional level.
The investigation method was an identical replication of Herzberg's theory used in his 1959 study.
The results revealed that from six motivators only four occurred significantly more often in higher sequence (achievement, work itself, responsibility, and recognition).
Possibility o f growth and advancement were the two motivators that did not appear at all in the study.
From the hygiene factors, company policy and administration was the most mentioned source of dissatisfaction. Next factors were status, working conditions, and personal life. Among supervision, jo b security, and salary none were not found with significant differences. The surprise was that two hygiene factors, interpersonal relationships with subordinates and interrelationships with peers, were significantly found more often in high job attitude frequencies.
Despite these findings, Herzberg stated, "These two The results o f the investigation revealed that two m otivalors-achievement and recognition and six hygiene factors-c ompany policy and administration, working conditions, interpersonal relationships, with subordinates and with peers, supervision, and personal life were in congruence to Herzberg's study. One o f the two added hygiene factors, relationships with the extension board was related to job dissatisfaction. In spite of these results, Herzberg considered the results of this investigation as verification of his theory (p. 105). Saleh's (1964) study was intended to study attitudes toward retirement. The study sample was 85 managerial employees between the ages 60 and 65.The 16 jo b factors and the same method for coding and analyzing of answers were used. The results indicated that five of six motivators were found more often in a job satisfaction sequence and hygiene factors were the only factors found significantly more often among sequences of job dissatisfaction. The results confirmed the theory-89% involved the motivators, in contrast to only 33% involving negative attitude events. Hygiene factors were six times as frequent in causing negative job attitudes as they were in bringing about positive feelings.

The next replication of H erzberg's study was conducted in Veterans
Administration Hospital in Utah. The sample was compounded of 29 professional nurses, 31 skilled workers em ployed in engineering maintenance services, and 35 unskilled workers. Taking three groups together, motivators appeared three times more often among high-job attitude sequence. Hygiene factors were found twice as often in the negative attitude events.
Among nurses, two motivators were found-recognition and achievement. Three hygiene factors were found including company policy and administration, interpersonal relationship with superiors and working conditions.
In the skilled group of workers, three motivators were fo u n d in high incidentsrecognition, achievement and possibility o f growth. Two hygiene factors, company policy and administration and supervision, were found in low incidents.
For the third group of unskilled workers, two motivators (recognition and responsibility) approached significance as differentiating job satisfaction from dissatisfaction. Three hygiene factors (company policy and administration, supervision, and interpersonal relations with peers) were found in low-attitude sequences. On the basis of the results, Herzberg said, "the theory still holds rather well" (p. 116).
Because this study provided only tentative results for unskilled workers who represented the lowest levels of jobs, Gendel (1965) decided to confirm H erzberg's theory on a group of 119 housekeeping workers at two Veterans Administration hospitals in Cleveland. The higher number of people involved in the investigation led to solid statistical evidence of the theory. The motivators were found to be a 4 -to -1 majority in high job attitude sequences. The hygiene factors were associated with the low sequences in a ratio of 3 -to -1. The significant motivators were recognition, advancement, and responsibility. Working conditions, interpersonal relationships with peers, company policy and administration, and supervision were hygiene factors. For the first time in any study, salary appeared as a dissatisfier in congruence with H erzberg's theory.

Replications in Educational Settings
Sergiovanni (1967) replicated Herzberg's study with teachers and Schmidt (1976) with school administrators. Work itself and advancement were not significant motivators for teachers. Work itself and responsibility were mentioned by administrators less frequently as motivators, and they considered advancement as a motivator.
The results showed that teachers have more problems with interrelationships with subordinates (students) than interrelationships with superordinates. Sergiovanni explained that teachers interact more of their daily time with students than with their superordinates. He claimed that most business occupations favor personal aggressiveness. On the other hand, em ployees in the educational organizations favor less aggressive behavior. Brown (1970) claimed that business managers are higher risk takers and they have greater achievement motivation than educational administrators. According to Miskel (1974), business managers are less concerned with hygiene factors, whereas educational administrators are concerned about hygiene factors. When risk is motivator, school administrators behave like business managers. Miskel and Heller (1973) developed Educational Work Components study (EWCS) questionnaire for their study. They hypothesized that educators who are upwardly mobile seek motivator rewards and have less concern for security than those who haven't such career ambitions. This hypothesis was only partially supported. Central office administrators had less desire for security than elementary teachers and principals had a greater tolerance for work pressure than elementary teachers. The analysis of the results revealed that the higher the aspiration, the greater the desire for risk and motivator rewards.
The purpose of M ay's study (1986)  The purpose o f the study done Burr (1980) was to examine the job content and job context factors related to job attitudes for community college and university directors of admissions, registrars, and directors of placement, to identify motivators and hygienes relevant to these positions, and to compare the determinants of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction among these positions and across the two types of institutions. Four directors of admissions, eight registrars, and five directors of placement were interviewed at three Florida community colleges and three universities in Florida's State University System. The replication of Herzberg's semi-structured interview was used to collect data.
The  in satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Satisfiers were endorsed more often to account for satisfying and also for dissatisfying situations. Graen (1965) used a factor analysis with groups of engineers and questioned the satisfaction dimension as clear factors. Dunnette (1965), on the basis of his study of sample o f executives, secretaries, army reserves supervision students, sale clerks, scientists, and engineers, came to the conclusion that motivation-hygiene theory was oversimplification. He noted that job satisfaction was multidimensional. That means that some factors were able contribute to job satisfaction and to job dissatisfaction.
Malinowski and Barry (1965) in their investigation of blue-collar workers revealed that, contrary to the Herzberg theory, both satisfiers and dissatisfiers were positively related to job satisfaction.
The main purpose of the Davis (1982)  Both males and females were satisfied with their job. A significant difference was found in the race category. Non-white principals were significantly less satisfied than white principals. The level o f satisfaction increased with salary increase. There was a significant difference between job satisfaction and number of assistant principals. The principals who had three assistant principals were more satisfied than principals who had two or less assistants or those principals who had four or more assistant principals. The study also showed that job satisfaction increased when the percentage of time principals spent with students increased. The socio-economic status of the school or student body size had no significant impact on job satisfaction. The Virginia Accreditation Status was a significant indicator of job satisfaction. Adequate Yearly Progress did not have a significant impact on job satisfaction. The principals tended to be more satisfied with these three dimensions of their jobs: keeping busy, being able to do things that do not go against their conscience, doing things for others. The study showed that high school principals in Virginia were least satisfied with the amount of pay they received for their work.
Brokke ( Cates (1984). The data were collected through the Internet. Ninety percent of administrators were male, whose average age was in the 45-50 age group. Administrators reported 19 years in Christian education, five years in their present ministries. Overall job satisfaction of school administrators was 88%. The findings o f the study revealed that only three of the four major tenets are supported and, therefore, this study could only partially support Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory. The group o f "satisfied" administrators did found significant fulfillment from the motivation factors as a whole. They only found the value of the "work itse lf' significantly unfulfilling. The group o f the "not satisfied" administrators found no job fulfillment in any o f H erzberg's motivators or hygiene factors. The group of "dissatisfied" administrators showed no significant fulfillment from the hygiene factors. A significant fulfillment from the motivation factors of "achievement" and "advancem ent" was reported in the group of "not satisfied" administrators. This group also found fulfillment in the combined motivation factors. The hygiene factor "salary" was reported by this group as a significant fulfillment. No fulfillment was found in this group in the combined hygiene factors. Sablatura (2002), in his com parison study of job satisfaction among urban, suburban, and rural school principals found, that principals overall were well satisfied by their relationships with stakeholders and the sense of challenge and accomplishm ent they derived from their jobs. The principals were moderately satisfied with job factors that comprised relationships with their supervisor and other district personnel. They were less satisfied with compensation. Urban and rural principals were significantly less satisfied with compensation than suburban principals.
In his study, Sablatura mentioned the existing problems of information available in research literature on principal jo b satisfaction. Because most of the articles from refereed scholarly journals are British, Australian, or Canadian studies (Friesen, et. al., 1983;Smith & Holdaway, 1995) the generalization of results to principals in America is not easy. In addition, any previous research conducted was done more than a decade ago, so the application of results for today's principals could be a problem (Iannone, 1973;Schmidt, 1976). Finally, since 1990 a number of empirical studies have been done on American principals, but most of them are unpublished doctoral dissertations (Stemple, 2004;Brokke, 2002, Sablatura, 2002Lacey, 2000). Lacey's (2000) study was designed to determine if Friedlander's (1964) questionnaire could measure the extent of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction, as The study findings showed that the general satisfaction score mean was 3.65 that indicated that these principals were "satisfied " (3.00-3.99) with their jobs.
The demographic variables were within the "sa tisfied" score. The investigator also reported similar results for each of the measured jo b dimensions.
In Graham and M essner's (1998)  significance resulted from the analysis of the relationships between tenure in the current position and extrinsic job satisfaction. School administrators reported higher levels of extrinsic job satisfaction with fewer years in the current position. The data collected did not show a relationship between job satisfaction and personality. A relationship of job satisfaction to marital status did not reveal a statistical significance, but the support of family, friends, and colleagues showed a significant relationship to job satisfaction. The findings of the study showed that younger female principals had significantly higher extrinsic job satisfaction scores than older female principals and the perceived level of support was significantly and positively related to overall job satisfaction.
The study of Phelps (1995) focused on factors contributing to job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction among alternative school principals. The data were collected through a modified Herzberg's semi-structured interview technique. Individual principals were asked to describe the situations when they felt extremely good or bad in their jobs. The findings of the study revealed that feelings of job satisfaction of the alternative school principals came from student success and accomplishments. Interpersonal relations and compliance with district policy were the most frequently mentioned as sources of job Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
dissatisfaction. Principals with multiple site responsibilities were more dissatisfied than principals responsible for single sites. The conclusion of this study supported H erzberg's Two-Factor theory of job satisfaction as it related to alternative school principals.
Penn used the H erzberg's Two-Factor Theory as a model (1995). The purpose of this study was to identify the satisfiers of selected black school administrators in Virginia.
The data were collected through the use of a taped telephone interview within the confines of the Herzberg's semi-structured interview technique. Forty-one participants were selected for the study. Osbum (1993) exam ined Florida principals' perceptions of suggested rewards as having a potential to motivate principals to accept the risks of leadership in school improvement. Attention was paid to the mitigating effects of organizational climate, culture, and structure. The selected characteristics of organizations as measured factors in examining of the perceptions of the proposed rewards are included in the study. The factor analysis was used to identify three-factor motivation structure. Factor I was the "level playing field." This factor showed a concern for fair treatment and performance evaluation. Factor II was the "resource and control" factor and focused on the principal's control of the resources and personnel in the school setting in which respondents worked.
Factor III was the "value added payoff." Emphasis in this factor was on money or monetary related awards. Analysis of the study showed that Factor I and Factor II were very closely related. Factor III was not related to Factor I and II and was rejected as a necessary requisite to acceptance o f the leadership role. The study supported H erzberg's Two-Factor theory because money and organizational characteristics function as hygiene Pillar (1991) in his study tested a hypothesis drawn from H erzberg's motivationhygiene theory. He focused on the extent to which motivator and hygiene factors existed among lay principals. Elementary and secondary principals were also compared in order to determine if there was a difference in the factors related to their jo b satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The sample was 211 lay principals of Catholic elementary and secondary schools in Michigan. The findings revealed that combined motivator factors had a tendency to contribute more to job satisfaction than combined hygiene factors. Combined hygiene factors appeared to contribute more to job dissatisfaction than combined motivator factors. There was not a statistical significant difference in combined factors identified with job satisfaction between elementary and secondary principals and there was not a statistically significant difference in com bined factors identified with job dissatisfaction between elementary and secondary principals.
The purpose of Rasmussen study (1990) was to identify the factors perceived by middle school principals as contributing to their jo b satisfaction and job dissatisfaction.
The design of the study was to apply Herzberg's Two-Factor theory to middle grade principals to determine how work-related events caused satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
Data were collected through interviews with selected participants. The sample was selected by stratified random sample of 33 middle school principals in Los Angeles and Orange Counties. To collect data, a modified Herzberg's semi-structured interview was utilized. The study revealed that responsibility, recognition, achievement, work itself, and advancement are greater indicators of job satisfaction. The hygiene factors of working conditions, status, interpersonal relations, company policy and administration, status, supervision, and jo b security were the greatest indicators of job confidence.
Dissatisfaction with company policy and administration was significant at the 0.5 level.
The motivator factors advancement, possibility o f growth, and responsibility' were not identified as either a motivator or as a hygiene factor. The hygiene factors salary, jo b security, status were not identified as either motivator or a hygiene factors. The work itself was identified as a motivator and also as a hygiene factors. No significant difference between the demographic factors and job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction. Intrinsic variables contributed to job satisfaction while extrinsic variables contributed to job dissatisfaction. The motivators contributed more often to job satisfaction than the hygiene factors, and hygiene factors more frequently contributed to job satisfaction. Thus, this study supported H erzberg's theory.
The purpose of Ashton (1989) study was to assess the overall job satisfaction of Connecticut middle school principals, to determine if any combination of job-related predictor variables, such as work on the present job, supervision, present pay, opportunities for promotion, and co-workers, contributed significantly to principals' job satisfaction, and to exam ine the predictor variables with respect to Frederic H erzberg's Two-Factor Theory of motivators and hygienes. The data were collected by a Job Descriptive Index (JDI). The sample consisted of all 85 middle school principals. Two independent variables work on the present jo b and present pay were revealed as predictors of job satisfaction. Work on the present jo b explained 31.87% of the variance in the dependent variable of job satisfaction. Present pay accounted for 3.63% of variance. Both predictors were statistically significant at the 0.5 alpha level with p. values of .000 and .046. This investigation found that the hygiene factor present pay related significantly to the job satisfaction. The motivator promotion opportunities, which should contribute toward job satisfaction, was not a predictor in this study. The conclusion from the study was that middle school principals in Connecticut, on the basis of their score, appeared satisfied with their jobs and that two predictor variables, work on the present job and present pay, related significantly to job satisfaction. The study found only partial support for H erzberg's Two-Factor Theory.
O 'Neal (1986) explored the perceptions of educational administrators regarding job characteristics. The respondents were asked to distinguish between job characteristics, which were personally satisfying, and job characteristics which motivated them to increase work performance. The dem ographic questions were also part o f the questionnaire, which was developed and mailed to 317 educational administrators in a large school district in the Southwest. The findings showed that educational administrators did not distinguish between satisfaction and motivation. A subtle distinction did exist between motivation for personal satisfaction and motivation for performance o f the job. There was little variance explained by three demographic variables. Females appeared to be more satisfied than men in their jobs. The results showed that females were also more flexible in adapting to work demands them males.
The study of W isher (1984) was focused to examine the relationship among motivation-hygiene factors perceived to be present in districts by principals' supervisors, and the levels of job satisfaction as expressed by principals. W hile superintendents were interviewed, the questionnaires were sent to all school principals in Riverside County school district. The findings of the study showed that except for job security, all motivation-hygiene factors were rated as average to the above priorities of implementation. The principals reported some satisfaction for each o f the motivationhygiene factors and overall. Demographic data didn't affect overall job satisfaction. The findings also revealed significant differences between the district's priority in implementation of the factors District Policy/Administration, Supervision/Technical Skill, and Job Security, and the level of principals' job satisfaction. Principals were generally satisfied with their jobs. District policy/administration, working conditions, interpersonal relations, and salary were suggested to enhance a principals' job satisfaction. The findings of the study did not support Herzberg's theory. Surbida (1983) in her study used H erzberg's motivation-hygiene theory model of job satisfaction to examine job satisfaction or job dissatisfaction regarding the salaries of elementary principals in the San Gabriel Valley school districts in California. An additional purpose was to evaluate the relationship between principals' overall job satisfaction and the demographic variables of age and years as an administrator. The final purpose was to examine whether there were significant differences in overall job satisfaction as a function of the demographic variables o f sex and ethnic background of a subject. The data were collected through mailed questionnaires to all 296 elementary school principals. Findings of the study showed that there was not a significant relationship between principals' ages and overall job satisfaction and sex and overall job satisfaction. M inority principals were less satisfied with their jobs than white principals.
The study revealed no significant relationship between the number of years served as a principal and ratings of subjects and overall job satisfaction. Dissatisfied principals proved too small a sample to conduct a meaningful analysis with respect to the salary variable. There were no significant relationships between salaries of principals and their levels of jo b satisfaction in the group of satisfied principals. Principals, overall, reported that they were satisfied with their jobs and with their salaries. The study partially supported H erzberg's Two-Factor theory.
The study o f Friesen, Holdaway, and Rice (1983)  constraints, student attitudes and performance, attitudes of society, and stress differed in this study from H erzberg's results. Hygiene interpersonal relations were identified as a source of satisfaction. M otivator advancement was not identified as a source of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Overall constraints, student attitudes and performance, attitudes of society, and stress were identified as dissatisfiers, but were not apparent in H erzberg's research. The study only partially supported Herzberg's theory.

Sex
The literature supporting job satisfaction and gender is divergent (Cole, 1940;Stockford & Kunze, 1950;Chase, 1951;Hulin & Smith, 1976;M cCaslin & M wangi, 1994). Herzberg in his book Job Attitudes (1957) described the situation as follows: Twenty-one studies are reported on this problem. In six of these women are shown to be more satisfied than men; in three, women are less satisfied than men; and in five no differences between men and women emerges. Five other studies have no data comparing men and women, but they report surveys o f w om en's job attitudes in which morale was found to be high. (p. 15) Varca, Shaffer, andM cCauley (1983), Freisen et al. (1983) found that male faculty members were more satisfied with their jobs than female faculty members. On the other hand, studies of Hodson (1989) and Kelly (1989) showed that female employees have increased job satisfaction over males. A study of Nestor and Leary (2000) about the relationship between tenure and non-tenure track status o f extension faculty and job satisfaction revealed that there is no statistically significant relationship between gender and job satisfaction despite the fact that literature has indicated that there is a positive relationship, with female employees having higher job satisfaction (Friesen, Holdaway, & Rice, 1983;Hodson, 1989;Loscocco & Roschell, 1991).
The findings o f Delgado (2001) about jo b satisfaction of high school principals revealed that males had significantly higher scores on perceptions of training opportunities and use of teams and less variance across all variables. Bryant's study (2001) of factors influencing job satisfaction of principals in low-performing and exemplary schools showed that overall job satisfaction appeared to be related to age, but not gender. W hen male and female principals from school performance groups were compared separately in relation to their job satisfaction scores, there were significant differences. G ender was found as one of the variables to be a predictor from both principal groups. Neal (2002), in her study about job satisfaction o f Florida's high school assistant principals, revealed that gender was not found to be a significant factor. Evans' study (2002) on job satisfaction of assistant principals in Philadelphia area high schools revealed little effect of gender to jo b satisfaction. Barry (2002) in his study about job satisfaction and leadership style of M ichigan high school principals found that, in regard to job satisfaction, male high school principals tended to be more satisfied with their promotion ability than female principals, and principals in large schools had a higher satisfaction with promotion than those in smaller schools. Overall, male principals in the larger schools have greater job satisfaction than principals in small schools. Descriptive profiles in Brogan's (2002) study about job satisfaction of Idaho high school principals indicated a small level of difference among high school principals related to gender in general job satisfaction with males having marginally higher levels of general job satisfaction. D ill's study (1987) about Tennessee male and female secondary principals revealed that women worked most often in urban schools, while men in rural settings.
Educational backgrounds of males and females did not differ significantly but women had the greater proportion of doctorate degrees. W omen spent far more years in the classroom before entering into the principalship, and both genders most often cited the assistant principalship as preliminary to the principalship. Female job satisfaction was extremely high.
The purpose of Phelan's study (1991) was to examine job inputs, job outputs, and the organizational commitment of 283 male and 283 female professional and managerial employees of a major U.S. corporation. The Findings revealed that men had jobs with substantially higher salary grades and estimated salaries than women. G ender differences in educational attainment, years in the workforce, breaks in service, hours worked per a day, and frequency of working on weekends, in the evenings, and during lunch were minimal. W om en had longer breaks in service from the organization and reported working more frequently in the evenings and during lunch. No other gender differences were found in job inputs. Two hypotheses were proposed to account for the "paradox of the contented female worker" (i.e., that w om en's jo b satisfaction is as high as m en's even though their jobs pay less). The First hypothesis stated that employees would compare their outcome and inputs to those of same -sex colleagues and, consequently, that the relationship between equity scores and organizational commitment would be stronger for equity scores based on own-sex comparisons. Second, it was hypothesized that because women have lower personal entitlement standards, women (relative to men) would be significantly more committed to the organization than predicted on the basis of their equity scores. Neither hypothesis was confirmed.
The purpose of the study o f Burke (1995) was to explore the perceptions of county elementary teachers regarding their satisfaction with selected characteristics and operational procedures of the Alberta school system where the teachers worked. Another purpose was to develop profiles of the personal and professional characteristics of Canadian elementary teachers and to examine the relationship that exists between satisfaction and these characteristics. The findings revealed that overall job satisfaction was slightly associated with sex of teacher, length of residency, childhood residency, and consistency of assignment with training. Number of dependents, marital status, contract status, years of teaching in the present county, years o f total teaching experience, and major teaching assignments were highly associated to overall job satisfaction. Sutter (1994), in his study about job career satisfaction of secondary school assistant principals, surveyed 632 secondary school assistant principals in Ohio during the 1993-1994 school year. To collect data, he used the M innesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. He found that the best predictor o f job satisfaction was a model, which combined the participants' feelings of personal achievement on their jobs, beliefs about their chances of advancement, how they perceived that their abilities were utilized, and whether or not they aspired to become building principals. The model which combined their sex, their beliefs about their chances for advancement, their feelings o f personal achievement on their jobs, and their thoughts about their school system 's policies and practices was indicated by the secondary school assistant principals as the best predictor of career satisfaction. The assistant principals who were accomplishing much on the job reported a higher level of satisfaction than assistant principals who were accomplishing less. The assistant principals who wanted to be principals had a significantly higher level of job satisfaction than assistant principals who did not have such aspirations.
The study conducted by Jones (1990) about the relationship between the job satisfaction of secondary assistant principals and their perception of their principal's leadership behavior revealed that the demographic variables sex, length of service, race, and educational level had an insignificant effect upon the relationship between leadership behavior variables and the job satisfaction.
M cElveen (1989) compared the job perceptions, job roles, job satisfaction, and career plans o f more and less experienced secondary school assistant principals. The demographic data were sex, years o f teaching experience, age, educational background, and salary. The study showed that the more experienced group o f assistant principal was older, contained fewer females but more non-whites, had less teaching experience, and received higher salaries when compared with their less experienced counterparts. Borquist (1987) studied job satisfaction of administrators in a public suburban school district. She found that sex group membership do not significantly relate to job satisfaction.
M iller (1985), in his study about secondary school principals in M innesota and their jo b satisfaction, described the secondary principals of Minnesota. The secondary principalship is a male-dominated profession. Only 3.6% o f the respondents were female.
The respondents had an average o f approximately 14 years of educational administrative experience and had been in their present position an average of eight years. The MSQ overall satisfaction mean score was 3.5 of a possible of 5. Intrinsic mean score (3.7) was significantly higher their extrinsic mean score (3.10). Despite the fact that there were significant differences between intrinsic and extrinsic mean scores, there was also a significant correlation between these means scores. As the intrinsic mean increased, the extrinsic mean scores also increased. No significant relationship was found among sex, total years of educational administrative experience, years in present position, age, highest degree earned and any o f the three satisfaction scores.
The study of Eckman (2000)  Harvey (2002), in his study about professional vitality and the principalship, found that passion emerged as the most resilient characteristic of professional vitality.
W omen showed higher passion, higher professional vitality, and less role conflict than men. Total experience in education, age, and support from faculty and staff were associated with higher vitality and lower stress, while experience in the same school was associated with diminished passion and vigor and increased overload.

Years Served as a Principal and Years Served in Present School
The research about job satisfaction and years of experience has indicated that no relationship was found between those two variables (Bodeian, Farris & Kacmar, 1992).
On the other hand, research studies of M cCaslin and Mwangi (1994) found that overall job satisfaction increased with the years of experience.
D elgado (2001) researched job satisfaction o f high school principals. This study revealed that principals' years of experience did not correlate significantly with job satisfaction. Bryant (2001) studied factors influencing job satisfaction of principals in low performing and exemplary schools. His findings revealed that years of experience was not related to general job satisfaction for principals from either school performance group. The study of Brady (2001) about job satisfaction of California principals revealed that two demographic factors, length of years as a principal and years in current position, were related to principals' perceived job satisfaction with job performance. As years in the position increased, so did the level of one's perceived performance. Brogan (2003) studied job satisfaction of Idaho high school principals and showed that the more experienced principals enjoyed higher levels of general job satisfaction. Hardman, Leary, and Toth (1996)  Chen (2000) looked at job satisfaction among high school assistant principals in the state of M ississippi and showed a high degree of general, intrinsic, and extrinsic job satisfaction among the assistant principals. Intrinsic satisfaction was high, with 75% of the assistant principals rating 11 of the 12 intrinsic statements as "satisfied" or "very satisfied." The degree of extrinsic satisfaction was not as high as the degree o f intrinsic satisfaction. The study did not reveal the statistically significant relationship between job satisfaction and length of years worked as an assistant principal. No statistically significant relationship was found between working five years or less as an assistant principal and job satisfaction. Those principals who worked more years as assistant principals reported greater job satisfaction. Harvey and France (1997)  for manifest affiliation needs to increase with years of administrative experience.
The purpose of the study of Greska (2004) was to assess the level o f job satisfaction of public middle school assistant principals in North Carolina. The results revealed that assistant principals were overall satisfied with their job in general. No significant relationships were revealed between overall job satisfaction, and number of years as an assistant principal, and other demographic variables.
Border (2004) studied job satisfaction of Florida's middle school assistant principals as a factor for preserving an administrative workforce. He revealed that tenure, or years o f experience as assistant principals, was found to be negatively correlated with all six-facet scales: work, pay, promotion, supervision, people, and job in general (JIG).
Personal variables showed no statistically significant difference between the mean JIG score of male and female respondents. Bridges (1995) study focused on the statistical relationships and associations between the dependent variable of job satisfaction and the independent variables of years as an assistant principal, years experience as an educator, gender, age, level of education, assistant principals' perceptions of district support, annual income, district size, building size, and average hours worked per week of Arkansas secondary assistant principals.
From 10 variables, only three relationships were found to be statistically significant.
These were age and job satisfaction, level of education and satisfaction, and perceptions of district support and job satisfaction.
A study o f factors affecting job satisfaction among Arkansas secondary principals was done by Owen (1996). His study revealed that a statistical significance was found to exist between 5 of 10 factors when correlated with jo b satisfaction. These variables were years as an educator, income, level of education, district support, and age. Between those variables that showed statistical significance when measured using both the chi-square test of independence and the Spearm an's rho correlation coefficient where years of experience as an educator, income, and district support.
The study o f Degnan (1985) focused on critical incidents of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction o f regional education attendance area (REAA) principals in Alaska. The study found that positive actions of students contributed to the satisfaction of both male and female principals, regardless of length in present position, length of residence in Alaska, or sex. The negative actions of district office personnel contributed to dissatisfaction of REAA principals, regardless of length in present position, length of residence in Alaska, or sex. Ferrandino and Tirozzi (2003) in their article about middle school principals posited "Principals are older and have less experience as principals. Principals with 3 or fewer years experience have increased steadily over the past 20 years, while the percentage of principals with 10 or more years experience has declined in that same time period" (2003, p. 2).

Type of School
The scant literature reporting the relations between principal satisfaction and level of school (elementary, middle, high) has been inconsistent (Friesen et. al., 1983;. Evans' study (2002) focused on the relationship between the career path and professional background characteristics o f assistant principals in Philadelphia area high schools and job satisfaction. It showed that type of school has little effect on job satisfaction of assistant principals. Steffen (1985), in his study about sources of organizational stress and the  Else and Sodoma (1999) that revealed that 81, 9% of principals of all type of schools in Iowa felt considerable stress. Job stress for principals was more highly associated with a lack of hygiene factors than with a lack o f motivators.
The mean attitude score of elementary principals was significantly lower than that of high school principals. The lack of opportunity for professional and personal growth was a more prevalent problem for elementary principals then it was for secondary principals.
Lack o f funding, supplies, and equipment was perceived to be more o f problem in suburban elementary schools than in suburban secondary schools. Job stress was negatively correlated with job attitude for both elementary and secondary principals in the sample.
The study of Holdaway and Johnson (1990)  relationships with students, freedom to allocate teaching assignments, responsibility for formal teacher evaluation, and their relationships with central office staff other than superintendent. In spite of a similarity in ranking, several important differences were found. The highest mean satisfaction score for facets were found in principal's working relationships with teachers and students. A greater variety of responses and lower mean score were found for principal's occupation, working conditions, and role and involvement in the district. Elementary and junior high school principals in interviews indicated similar facets that they gave them the most satisfaction and the most dissatisfaction. These were relationships, commitment, satisfaction, attitudes and growth.
Junior high principals placed greater emphasis upon student achievement and growth.
The most dissatisfying facets for elementary principals were conflict, non-cooperation, powerlessness, workload, capacity to innovate, lack of parents' interest, cutbacks associated with budgetary restraints, small school size, and educational priorities of the school district. Responses of the junior high school principals tended to cluster around poor motivation of some students and some staff, system decision-making and funding, bureaucratic procedures, and workload. Important rankings showed that working relationships with teachers and the teaching competence of teachers were ranked equally as number one for both groups. A sense of accomplishment as an adm inistrator and attitudes of parents to school both ranked 4.5 (elementary) and 6.5 (junior high). The greatest differences in the most highly ranked of the 41 facet variables were for achievement of students (ranks 11 and 5) and successful competition o f tasks and projects (10,16). For the elementary principals, the lowest mean scores related to the principal's social position in the community (2.6 on the 4-point scale), the principal's social relationships with teachers (2.8), and opportunities for advancement as an administrator (3.10). The corresponding means for administrators were 2.9, 2.9, and 3.2. Junior high principals also had low mean scores for the principal's involvement in decision-making at the district level (3.1) and fringe benefits in the contract (3.20). The research found a moderate correlation between satisfaction with facets and perceptions of importance of these facets for elementary principals (Spearman coefficient .52, p < .01). The level of agreement between satisfaction and importance was even lower for junior high school principals (Spearman coefficient .39) than for elementary principals. Relationships between extreme responses revealed that the facets that were rated "extremely im portant" were not consistently assigned "highly satisfied" ratings. The percentages of highly satisfied with a facet for which elementary principals indicated an extremely important rating varied from 12.7 % (number of hours the principal is required to work) to 50.5 % (principal's relationship with students). The range of high school principals was 5.9 % (principal's salary) to 63.8 % (responsibility for formal evaluation of teachers). The association obtained for both groups o f principals between selection of "extremely important for overall job satisfaction" and "highly satisfied" for each facet was only low to moderate.
The purposes of the study by Mack (2000) were to examine the factors that contributed to the job satisfaction of the principals in two metropolitan school districts and to identify specific perspectives o f those principals related to job satisfaction. The relationship between job satisfaction and the factors as school type, gender, principals' experience, degree attainment, school size, salary, and age were also assessed. The study o f Papa, Lankford, and W yckoff (2002)

Leadership and M anagement
Leadership and management are not the same things. W hile leadership is focused on creating a vision for the future and inspiring others to achieve it, management focuses on planning and controlling the organization in order to maintain stability (Daft, 1999).
M anagement is status quo oriented and assumes a highly stable environm ent (Ubben, Hughes, & Norris, 2004). The job of the manager is to keep things moving correctly according to the norm that has already been set (Argyris, 1982). On the other hand, leadership is very different. Leaders go well beyond the status quo. Foster (1984) stated that leaders always have one face toward change. Bennis and Nanus (1985) offer a clever distinction between a manager and leader. "A manager does the thing right-, a leader does the right thing " (p.21). Leaders are not born, they are made, and they are made by effort and hard work.
Thus, both leadership and management are important to organizations. The organizations need good management and good leadership, effective managers and effective leaders. W hile managers are concerned with shaping the structures and processes of the organization in order to produce desired results, leaders have a com mitment or a vision and their role is to shape people around their com mitment or vision (Lunnenburg & Orstein, 2000).
Studies have described the principalship as filled with conflict, with unsatisfying management requirements, and with long days and nights (Duke, 1988). Principals are required to perform a growing number of responsibilities but, as new responsibilities are added, other responsibilities are not deleted. (Sergiovanni, 2001;Portin, Shen, & W illiams, 1998). The results of research at IEL (Else & Sodoma, 1999) showed that with more autonomy of schools and with increased responsibilities, principals are forced to devote most of their time to management of schools instead of educational leadership.
Such a role is in conflict with expectations of society, which expects that principals will be institutional leaders with clear vision and will lead their schools to better results and to better student achievement (Else & Sodoma, 1999). This trend is not only a problem in A m erica's schools but also a problem of schools in Australia, United Kingdom, and New Zealand. Administrative work has increased substantially, competing with educational leadership for priority and taking more of a principal's time (Raham, 2003).
W omen are unrepresented in American administration despite the enactment of equal opportunity legislation and the W om en's Liberation Movement in the 1960s. In spite of the fact that three-fourths of A m erica's public school teachers in 1990 were women, 34% of them were elementary principals, only 12% were in secondary principalship, and only 5% were superintendents. The times have changed, but many barriers confronting women in leadership and management position have not change (Pigford & Tonnsen, 1993). Contrasting between male and female administrators Shakeshaft 1989 explained: The "average" women adm inistrator is more likely to be older, of a different race, religion, and political party, to be unmarried, and from a more urban background than her male counterpart. She is more likely to hold liberal views, to be more supportive of w om en's rights, and to understand the issues of single parents and divorce more personally, (p. 17) The difference in sex, years in position, and age, are not related to function of school management and leadership. Aggressiveness or assertiveness, "take charge" attitudes and rational analysis are associated with leadership qualities o f men. Male leaders prefer working in vertical hierarchies and tend to be individualistic and competitive. In dealing with subordinates, they rely on the formal authority they have in organization. Despite the fact that women also demonstrate these qualities, research has found that, in general, women tend to be more concerned with inclusiveness, consensus building, caring, and participation (Daft, 1999). W hile male leaders may associate effective leadership with a top-down com mand-and-control process, w om en's interactive leadership seems appropriate for the future of diversity and learning organizations. (Daft, 1999, p. 305) Principals o f schools, regardless of gender, are key forces in providing employees with job satisfaction. If teachers are not satisfied with their jobs, morale drops, absences increase, and principals are exposed to enormous pressures from subordinates, superiors, parents, school boards, and from all the community to provide quality education. If teachers are dissatisfied in their jobs, it is difficult for principals to share common vision, cooperation, and accept the change process (Bittel, Lester, Newstrom, 1990). Principals have to utilize all of their mastery to motivate the teachers. Verbal and nonverbal communication can motivate employees, so can intrinsic and extrinsic motivators.
Participation o f employees in the decision-making process and empowerment o f teachers are symptoms of a healthy school. Good work has to be recognized and poor work has to be corrected if it is going to change (Hill, 1979). Goals of the organization must be conceivable, believable, controllable, measurable, and desirable (Catt & Miller, 1989).
Satisfaction of teachers is not the main goal; it is a tool for better work productivity and better achievem ent of students.

W omen in Leadership Positions
Current educational administrators should support, stimulate, and encourage qualified women to pursue administrative careers and to recruit minority principals. The research study at UNI IEL (1999) showed women were 28.5 % of total number of principals, while racial/ethnic groups in Iowa comprised 2.4 % of the principals.
Historical data on women principals has shown that women constituted 55% of elementary principals in 1928elementary principals in , 41% in 1948elementary principals in , 38% in 1958elementary principals in , 22, 4% in 1968elementary principals in , and 19, 6% in 1973elementary principals in (Johnson, 1973. composition of principals in education shows that the proportion o f female principals is low relative to that of female teachers (Bell & Chase, 1993;Biklen & Branningan, 1980;Riehl & Byrd, 1997). In 1999-2000, 44% of all public school principals in the United States were women, up from 35% in -1994and from 25% in 1987, women made up 55% of public elementary school principals but just 21% of public high school principals (Gates et. al., 2003). Men still made up a majority o f the secondary school principals in both the public and the private sector.
In spite o f the fact that women have become an increasingly greater portion of the teaching force, the average male teacher is still much more likely than the average female teacher to become a principal (Riehl & Byrd, 1997). In 1999-2000, the number of women was substantially higher among new principals (those with three or fewer years of principal experience). Fifty-four percent of new principals were found to be women.
One research study (Gates et al., 2003) found that women received com parable pay for comparable work in the public sector.  (Brogan, 2003. Dealing with constant public criticism along with attitudes of disrespect and ingratitude from parents, students, and employees, public school administrators face daily challenges that often don't have satisfactory solutions (IEL Task Force, 2000). The press reports paint a picture of an exodus of principals, highlighting annual turnover rates as high as 20% among principals in several states e.g. Vermont, W ashington, Kentucky, and Texas (Steinberg, 2000).

Shortage of Principals
This literature review has shown that the issue of principal supply and demand is complex. Expected future research results will verify and, in fact, in many cases already verified a continuing shortage at the beginning of this century (IEL, 2000). Research also suggested that there are many persons certified to fill current vacancies who do not want to work as principals (Gates et al., 2003). These findings correspond to results o f a research study that revealed that many principals in Iowa who hold endorsem ent don't want to enter the principalship (Behrens, 2003).
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (1996)(1997), em ployment of education administrators is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005, meaning that a 10 -20% increase is projected. Most job openings, particularly for principals and assistant principals, are likely to result from the need to replace adm inistrators who retire. At a time when many people in the United States are working well into their 60s, a surprisingly small fraction (17%) o f public school principals are over 55 (Gates at al., 2003). The research study at the Institute for Educational Leadership (1999) showed that over three-fourths (78.4%) of Iowa public school principals fell between the ages of 41 and 60, with 18.3% below 40, and only a small num ber (3.2%) above 60. This number (78.4%) is very important because from this category principals will retire or leave their positions to find a job in business or within education.

Reasons for Shortage
Experienced teachers are not seeking campus administrative positions for a number o f reasons including insufficient pay, high levels of stress, the politics of the job, and the excessive work hours . M any teachers holding principal endorsement do not want to hold the position. Fenwick reported that nearly 47% of the nation's public school teachers hold m aster's degrees, many in educational leadership but they are nor willing to enter the leadership because they perceive principals to be overworked, underpaid bureaucrats, tangled in a web of administriva, unionized teachers, uninvolved parents, and disintegrated students (Fenwick & Pierce, 2001). The work week is especially long for high school principals who report working well in excess of 60 hours per week.
The results of Principals Job Satisfaction and Shortage Surveys at Institution for Educational Leadership (1999) showed that the most important dissatisfiers in a principal's job are time demands (67.2%) and stress (38%). These results correspondent with results of ERS (2000). The research at IEL (1999) also revealed that the reasons why principals consider quitting the principalship are lack of time to put balance in their life and stress. Fifty-two and a half percent of principals don't consider their principalship to be their final occupational goal. It is thought that they would try to change their job in the near future. That 52.5% is a big number. It is necessary that colleges/universities, professional organizations, legislators, schools, communities, current superintendents, and boards of education have to join hands to make school leadership positions highly valued and respected positions with a high potential for success. Interviews conducted with principals during the early 1990s about why they considered quitting indicated their sources of dissatisfaction included policy and administration, the challenge of doing all the things that principals are expected to do, and the tendency for managerial concerns to supercede leadership functions (Fullan & Hargreaves, 1996).
These factors, along with the seemingly inequitable salaries for such dem anding positions of leadership, are some of the negative elements which are perpetuating the belief that the principalship offers little or no job satisfaction (ERS, 2000).
When a current principal leave that position it is a loss to the organization. Unplanned turnover can cost as much as 3-5 times the annual salary of the individuals involved.

Current Efforts to Recruit Principals
W ith fewer teachers interested in becoming school administrators, the education community is considering more radical steps. Some states are looking at ways to redefine the principalship by dividing duties into those that are business-related and those that are education-related. Potter (2001) recommends, among other strategies, hiring recently retired principals to address the shortage. In Los Angeles, a threatened shortage of principals led the Los Angeles Unified School District to call on retired principals to temporarily fill the gaps (Sahagun, 2000). Because many educators retire before age of 60, the proper mix of salary and benefits may lure an experienced principal back to a campus for a period of time. It is possible that many principals don't decide to retire for economical reasons. The results o f research at IEL at UNI (1999) showed that with more autonomy of schools and with increased responsibilities principals are forced to devote most o f their work time to management of schools instead of educational leadership.
Another controversial approach being discussed by some is hiring professionals with management experience outside of education to fill empty principal positions (Fenwick & Pierce, 2001). The chief concern with this strategy is offering school's chief instructional position to business managers who lack teaching experience. The survey research provided at Institute for Educational Leadership (1999)  Standards is spearheading an effort to create a system of advanced certification for school administrators based on the existing national teacher certification effort (Archer, 2002). At the local level, many districts, particularly large urban districts, are trying to facilitate recruiting by increasing the supply of people interested in and qualified for principals positions through mentoring programs (Colvin, 2000). Some districts, for example in New York City, have principal institutes that identify excellent teachers and encourage and prepare them to become successful school leaders (Crow, M ecklowitz, & Weekes, 1992).
One of the concerns is that schools are not able or will be not able in the near future to find well-qualified people for administrative positions.  (1996) to define and measure the required competencies of school administrators may make it possible to consider the questions of qualities of principals more fully in the future. The analyses that try to address the problems of quality look to certification as a measure, or they simply rely on superintendents or district hiring offices. As discussed by Roza, Hill, Celio, Harvey, and W ishon, (2003), certification and educational attainment are the characteristics emphasized by district officers, but they are poor proxies for the political and leadership skills superintendents claim principals need.
The empirical evidence based on perceptions of quality raises some cause for concern. Two-thirds of respondents to a 1998 survey o f 3,000 elementary and middle school principals expressed concern about public education's ability to attract quality people to principalship in the future (Doud & Keller, 1998). A survey of superintendents about the hiring o f principals (NAESP, NASSP, 1998) found that about half of the superintendents who had recently filled principal vacancies felt there was a shortage of qualified candidates. However, the respondents also indicated satisfaction with the individuals they hired and reported that new principals had proved to be adequately prepared for the position.

Summary
The literature review and related research reviewed were divided into five parts. Definitions of the principals' role and responsibilities have changed over time.
With new accountabilities and responsibilities, the role of principals has changed and become demanding. A principal today is a key person in school improvement and school effectiveness.
Job satisfaction has been topic for many studies. Many authors and researchers from the last century contributed to our better understanding of job satisfaction. The literature review showed that there did not exist "one right" definition of jo b satisfaction.
Many authors have tried to explain the phenomena of job satisfaction in different ways.
A lot o f effort has been devoted to measuring satisfaction. M any scales to measure job satisfaction have been elaborated. These scales are still utilized in current research. M any researchers elaborated on their own scales to better measure job categories which are more closely related to the everyday work activities under investigation and that are more practical for their studies.
The content and process theories of motivation were also discussed in this chapter. Each group o f theories explains the motivation from a different perspective.
Despite the fact that some of these theories were developed more then 40 years ago, and although they were often criticized by some researchers, they are still widely utilized in educational research. H erzberg's theory was described in more detail. This theory has received much attention since its publication in 1959. Herzberg argued that the causes of job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are separate and distinct. The factors contributed to job satisfaction were motivators, which are intrinsic to the job. On the other hand, hygiene factors contributed to job dissatisfaction and they are extrinsic to the job.
The review of the literature showed that there is not a systematic research effort to study job satisfaction of public school principals in the United States. M any current studies are doctoral dissertations. W ithout knowing the perceptions of principals about satisfaction and dissatisfaction with their work, school boards and legislators will not be able to help principals get rid off the barriers that inhibit their work and their effectiveness. We need to know more about how sex of the principals, years in the position, or type of school contributes to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction of principals.
The review of the literature also confirmed the fact that some studies about principals' job satisfaction supported H erzberg's Two-Factor Theory, partially supported his theory, while others did not support this theory. In other words, some studies showed that not only motivators contributed to jo b satisfaction, but also hygiene factors had positive effect on job satisfaction of school principals.
The question of leadership and management of schools has become more urgent.
With more autonomy, many principals are forced to devote their time to management of their schools instead of educational leadership. This is in conflict with expectations of society. Unless school boards adjust the workload o f principals, their salary, extracurricular activities, and decisions to hire and fire personnel, the problems in job satisfaction will continue to arise. As a consequence, hiring women into leadership positions, especially at the high school level, could be problematic.
Stress, time demands, nearly 60-hours week, bureaucracy, and insufficient salary are some of the principals' factors of dissatisfaction. As a consequence, they leave their positions. The shortage o f principals is reported not only in Iowa but also in other states.
School districts fight to attract and retain qualified candidates into principalship. Even so, many qualified candidates refuse to enter the principalship. Many districts are looking for new ways to attract and retain qualified leadership personnel. They tried to improve benefits, reduce workloads, find assistant principals, and increase support. However, unless there is more autonomy in personnel management, contract protection, and reevaluation of the workload and salary, it is difficult to expect better school results and better student achievement. Herzberg's theory. The Herzberg theory provided the theoretical framework for this study .

M ethodology
Descriptive studies are concerned primarily with determining what is (Borg & Gall, 1996). According to McM illan and Schumacher (1997) research that is focused on measuring the characteristics of a sample at one point in time.
The second type is longitudinal research, in which a sample is followed over time. The researcher collects data from a sample of different points in time in order to study changes or continuity in the sam ples' characteristics (Borg & Gall, 1989). In this study, the trend study design was employed. The trend study is a type of longitudinal survey where information is collected at different points in time in order to study changes over time.
A descriptive survey was done in the form of a mail questionnaire mailed to individuals holding the K-12 endorsement. The survey method of research was selected because it provides a systematic data collection tool to reach many people (Salant & Dillman, 1994). It was also the most economical and expedient method for obtaining large amounts of data in a relatively short time.

Population and Sample
The population for the study was Iowa public elementary, middle, and high school principals. A list of individuals with Iowa K-12 endorsement who were employed in Iowa public schools as principals for K-12 schools in 1998-1999 was obtained from database of the Iowa Department of Education. The same process was used for the [2004][2005] studies. Both lists were checked to avoid omissions, duplicate entries, and other inaccuracies in order to avoid coverage error.
A sample is a set of respondents selected from a larger population for the purpose of survey (Salant & Dillman, 1994). In the 1999 study, all Iowa public school principals were contacted. A sample of 300 principals stratified by elementary, middle, and high schools were proportionally drawn against a population of principals in the 2005 study.
These principals were asked to participate in the study and to complete the research instrument.
W here the design is referred to as a proportionate stratified sampling, a uniform fraction is used for all the strata. This results in a sample that mirror o f the target population with respect to the stratifying variables. Each grouping of the stratifying variables constitutes the same proportion of the sample as it does of the total population.
Using a sample of 300 principals in the 2005 study was done for economic, material, and time reasons. A sample of 300 subjects was considered to be large enough to get good results. Salant and Dilman (1994) claim that for a study population with 250 members that we expect to be about evenly split on the characteristics of interest, we need a sample of 152 to make estimates with a sampling error of no more than ±_5%, at the 95% confidence level, if the sample split is 50/50. That means the population is relatively varied. For an 80/20 split we needed 124 members. With our sample of 300 we can estimate a sampling error of +_3% at the 95% of confidence level.

Instrumentation
The study utilized a questionnaire with two main parts: a demographic profile of Iowa public school principals and a job satisfaction instrument. Putting the demographic data at the beginning of the survey was intended to provide the respondent with easy questions to start the survey and reduces the likelihood of the respondents foregoing the demographic data if that page were placed at the end of the survey (Dillman, 2000). The instrument used in 2005 study was a modified version of the one used in 1999.
The researchers of the 1999 study decided to develop their own instrument to include a separate set of job categories related to the everyday work activities under investigation for the study of Iowa public school principals. Spector (1997) stated that the major disadvantage of using an existing scale is that it will be limited to only those facets that the developers chose to place in their instrument. He explained: The facets of most scales tend to be general, which makes them applicable to most organizations. They will not include more specific areas of satisfaction or dissatisfaction that are issues for certain types of organizations or a particular organization. These could include satisfaction with the specific decisions, events, individuals, or policies, (p. 7) The factors included in the questionnaire were related to the job itself and were represented by H erzberg's motivators as recognition, responsibility, and work itself. 1. The sense of accomplishment you receive from your work.
2. Professional growth opportunities for you.
3. The adequacy of administrative support provided for you.
4. The adequacy of support services provided for you.
5. Comm unity demands placed on you as a principal.
6. Extracurricular demands placed on you as a principal. The first part of the questionnaire was composed of selected demographic variables that were part o f the research questions. They included: Sex: refers to the sex of the respondents. This variable was measured by asking respondents to select "m ale" or "female." Years you have served as principal total and in current school: refers to the number of years experience as an elementary, middle, or high school principal. These variables were measured by asking respondents to select from a range of given figures which indicated number of years they have been principals.
Type of public school: refers to the elementary, middle/junior high, or high school where principal is in a principal position. Elementary school is any school consisting o f grades through K-5 or K-6. M iddle school is any school consisting of grades through 5-9, or 6-9.
Junior high school is any school consisting of grades 6-9, usually grades 7-8. High school is any school consisting of grades 9-12 or grades 10-12.
Other  absolute best to ensure confidentiality (Salant & Dillman, 1994). The individual's identity and that of each principal's school was used only to monitor the return of questionnaires and not in the analysis and reporting of data. All data collected were studied as group data. The answers were entered on a com puter without names, addresses, or any means of identification.
The same process was utilized in the 2005 research study. The questionnaires with a cover letter, handwritten signature, and a business-size, stamped return envelopes were sent to all respondents. About two weeks after the questionnaires were sent, a follow-up letter was sent to members of the sample to thank those who had already responded and to remind those who had not. This included personalized cover letter with a handwritten signature, questionnaire, and preaddressed return, stamped envelope.
In order to avoid non-response error, late respondents (14.9%) were compared with respondents in order to obtain information about the differences of the groups. No significant differences were found between these two groups of principals.
Respondents marked their responses directly on the questionnaire. Any time researchers ask people to participate in a survey, it is the researchers' responsibility to respect both participants' privacy and the voluntary nature of their involvement (Salant & Dillman, 1994). In the 2005 study the respondents were also assured o f confidentiality in the compilation of results. Confidentiality means that despite the fact that the researcher could associate responses with particular people he did not do so. The individual identity of each principal and the school was used only to m onitor the return of questionnaires and was not identified in the analysis and reporting data. All data collected were studied as group data. The answers were put on a com puter without names, addresses, or any means of identification.

Data Analysis
All data were analyzed by the researcher with SPSS, a statistical software program. Overall job satisfaction, satisfaction related to the job itself, and job context were described by descriptive statistics including numbers and percentages, means, and standard deviations. The analysis o f the demographic data to overall job satisfaction was provided by /-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Scheffe post hoc tests.
Correlations were calculated to describe the relationship or strength of association among overall job satisfaction, educational leadership activities, and management tasks.

I l l
Summary This chapter describes in detail the purpose and the step-by-step procedure of the study. A survey questionnaire was used to collect necessary data about job satisfaction of Iowa public school principals. The questionnaires were reviewed and a pilot study was described. The method of selecting the sample and the criteria used to categorize respondents was also described. The procedures of data collection and data treatment were detailed. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in data analysis.    The Iowa questionnaire scale analysis contains 19 items that measure specific factors of job satisfaction with one question intended to measure overall job satisfaction.
Often facet scales are used to assess general satisfaction by summing all of the individual facet scores. However, this is not the case in this study because each facet does not have the same importance for every individual, and the sum of these facets does not express the level of overall satisfaction. Rather, the sum expresses satisfaction with special aspects of the job (Ironson et al., 1989). .70 (Nunnally, 1978).
Research Question 1 W hat is the overall level of job satisfaction of Iowa public school principals?
The overall mean (M) of job satisfaction for 76% o f respondents in the 1999 study was 2.04, with a standard deviation of .796. The mean fell within the moderately satisfied range on the scale.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Sub-Question a: W hat is the overall level of job satisfaction according to sex, years served as a principal, years served as principal in present school, and type of school?
The number of respondents (AO, the mean (M), and standard deviation (SD ) for each group are shown in Table 2.
The highest overall satisfaction scores were observed for female principals  The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 2. The analysis of variance indicated no statistical significance between years served as a principal and overall job satisfaction F(6, 881) = 2.058, p > .05. These results indicated that the overall job satisfaction is unaffected by years served in the principalship.
The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 3. The analysis of variance indicated no significant difference between years served in present school and overall job satisfaction F(2,888) = .450, p > .05. These data indicated that overall job satisfaction is unaffected by years served in present school. The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 4. Analysis of variance indicated no significant difference between type of school and overall job satisfaction, Bureaucracy, lots of paper work, adding accountabilities, and many extracurricular activities seem to be why principals felt overwhelm ed in their effort to work effectively and productively.  To answer this question it was necessary to analyze each of the 20 factors of the Iowa questionnaire against each of the dem ographic variables. The results were tabulated and labeled. Each of the tables shows dem ographic variables, the number (N) of respondents for each group, the means (M ), the standard deviation (SD) for each group, /values, F ratio (F), and significance (p) for each variable. If it was necessary, a post hoc test followed each table in order to identify groups that differed.
The independent Mest was used to test sex as a demographic variable. The /-test was used to analyze whether the proportion in one category was different from the proportion in another category (Fraenkel & W allen, 2000). In other words, a /-test compared the means of two distributions for some variables in which there was no overlap of membership in the two groups being measured. An independent /-test was performed to determine differences between sex scores. The results of the independent /test are provided in narrative form.
A one-way-analysis o f variance ANOVA was conducted to test significant differences between groups o f means regarding principals' total years served as principals, the principals' years served in present school, and the type of school. ANOVA F test o f significance was necessary to evaluate whether mean scores of the tested groups differed significantly from each other. ANOVA F test was more suitable for determining significance than performing a multiple /-test of significance. A_p value of less than .05 was chosen as the level of significance for one-way ANOVA. A risk level of 5% is used in much educational and social research (Bieger & Gerlach, 1996). It means that researcher is willing to take a risk o f being wrong as an acceptable probability of reporting false (Type I error) results.
W here F test results were significant, Scheffe post hoc tests were conducted in order to identify groups, which differed. C ohen's d effect size (1977)   The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 6. The analysis of variance indicated no significant difference for years served as a principal and the sense of accomplishment principals receive from their work F{6, 881) = 1.635, p > .05. These results indicated that job satisfaction with a sense of accomplishment for the principal's work is unaffected by years served in the principalship. The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 7. The analysis of variance indicated statistically significant differences between years served in present school and the sense of accomplishm ent principals receive from their work (F(2, 887) = 5.495, p < .05. A Scheffe post hoc test indicated significant differences between means of principals who served 1-5 years and principals who served more than 11 years (p = .017), with a small effect size d = .23. Principals who served in present school 1-5 years (M = 1.90) appeared to less satisfied with the sense of accomplishment received from their work than principals who served more than 11 years (M = 1.63).
The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 8. The analysis of variance indicated significant differences for type of school F(2, 887), = 6.978, p < .001.   Table 9. These data indicated that job satisfaction with professional growth opportunities was unaffected by years served in the principalship. The analysis of variance indicated no significant differences between the number of years principals served in their present schools and professional growth opportunities F(,2, 887) = 1.477, p > .05. The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 10.
These data indicated that job satisfaction with professional growth opportunities was unaffected by years served in present school.
The analysis o f variance indicated significant differences among elementary, m iddle/junior high, and high school principals F(2, 887) = 5.217, p < .05. The results of a one-way ANOVA are presented in Table 11.    The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 12. The analysis of variance indicated no significant differences between the principals' years served as principals and the adequacy o f administrative support provided for principals F(6, 882 = 1.136, p > .05 These results indicated that jo b satisfaction with the adequacy of administrative support provided for principals is unaffected by years served in the principalship. The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 13. Analysis of variance indicated no statistically significant differences between years served in their present school and adequacy of adm inistrative support provided for principals F (2, 888) = .720, p > .05. The data indicated that job satisfaction with the adequacy of administrative support provided for principals is unaffected by years served in present school.
The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 14. The analysis of variance indicated no statistically significant differences between types of schools and adequacy of administrative support provided for principals F{2, 888) = .637, p > .05.
These results indicated that job satisfaction with the adequacy of administrative support provided for principals was unaffected by type o f school.   The analysis of variance indicated no significant difference between job satisfaction and adequacy of support services provided for principals F (6, 879) = .335, p > .05. The results of one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 15. These results indicated that job satisfaction with adequacy of support services provided for principals was unaffected by years served in the principalship.
The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 16. The analysis of variance indicated no significant differences between job satisfaction with adequacy of support services provided for principals and years served in their present school F(2, 881) = .550, p > .05. These results indicated that job satisfaction with the adequacy of support services provided for principals was unaffected by years served in present school. The results of one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 17. The analysis of variance indicated a statistically significant difference for type of school F{2, 881) = 3.043, p < .05. The Scheffe post hoc test revealed no significant difference among type of schools.
Factor 5. Community dem ands placed on you as a principal outside of the school.
The highest job satisfaction scores were seen for female principals (Af = 2.59, SD The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 18. The analysis of variance indicated a significant difference for the number of years served as a principal and the job satisfaction with community demands placed on principals outside of school F(6, 883) = 3.483, p < .05. Scheffe post hoc test indicated statistically significant differences between the means of principals who served 6-10 and 26-30 years as principals (p = .030), with small effect size d = .29. Principals who served as principals 26-30 years (M = 2.25) were significantly more satisfied than principals who served as principals 6-10 years (M = 2.77). The results o f a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 19. The analysis of variance indicated a statistically significant differences for principals who served in their present school and job satisfaction with community demands placed on principals F(2, 885) = 4.249, p < .05. Scheffe post hoc test indicated significant differences between means of principals who served 1 -5 years in their present school with principals who served more than 11 years in their present school (p=.015), with a small effect size d = Table 19 A

Present School
Years in present N school   The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 20. The analysis of variance indicated significant differences between means of com munity demands placed on principals outside of school and the type of school F(2, 879) = 11.706, p < .001. The independent t-test indicated a statistically significant difference r(887) = 2.493, p < .013 with small effect size d = . 17 for extra-curricular demands placed on principals between males (M = 3.12) and females (M = 2.93). Males were less satisfied with the extracurricular demands placed on principals than females.

Table 21
A The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in the Table 21. The analysis of variance indicated no significant differences for years served as principals and extracurricular demands placed on principals F(6, 882) = 1.294, p > .05. These results indicated that job satisfaction with extracurricular demands placed on principals was unaffected by years served in the principalship. The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in the Table 22. The analysis of variance indicated no significant differences for years served in present schools and extracurricular demands F(6, 884) = .694, p > .05. These results indicated that job satisfaction with extracurricular demands placed on principals was unaffected by years served in present school.
The results of one-way ANOVA are reported in the Table 23  The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 24. Analysis of variance indicated a significant difference between years served as a principal and time available for activities that put balance in principal's life F(6, 881) = 4.782, p < .001). Scheffe post hoc test indicated statistically significant differences between groups of principals.

Table 24
A

Life by Years Served as a Principal
Years served as a principal  The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 25. The analysis of variance indicated a significant difference between years served in present school and time available for activities that put balance in principals' lives F(2, 887( = 3.904, p > .05. Scheffe post hoc test indicated a significant difference between the means of principals   The results o f a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 26 All of these lowest scores were within the m oderately satisfied range (2.00-2.99) on the questionnaire scale.
An independent r-test indicated statistically significant differences r(888) = .-2.036, p < .042, on the relationship with the team/cabinet between males (M = 1.85) and females (M = 2.01). Males were more satisfied with their relationship with the team/cabinet than females. The results of a one-w ay ANOVA are reported in Table 27. The analysis of variance indicated no significant differences between years served as a principal and the principal's relationship with the team/cabinet F (6, 883) = .910, p > .05. The results indicated that job satisfaction and relationship with administrative cabinet was unaffected by years served in the principalship.
The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in the Table 28. The analysis of variance indicated no significant difference between years served in present school and the relationship with team/cabinet F{2, 889) = . 137, p > 872. These results indicated that job satisfaction regarding their relationship with the team/cabinet was unaffected by years served in present school. The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 29. The analysis of variance indicated no significant differences between type of school and relationship with administrative team/cabinet F(2, 889) = 1.632, p > .05. These results indicated that job satisfaction regarding the relationship with the administrative team/cabinet was unaffected by type o f school. The results o f a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 30. The analysis of variance indicated no significant differences between years served as a principal and relationship with the board of education F(6, 878) = 1.530, p > .05. These results indicated that job satisfaction and the relationship with the board of education was unaffected by years served in the principalship.

Table 30
A The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 31. The analysis of variance indicated no significant differences between years served in the present school and the relationship with the board of education F (2, 884) = .964, p > .05. These results indicated that job satisfaction and the relationship with the board of education was unaffected by years served in present school.  Table 32 A The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table  The results of the ANOVA are reported in Table 33. The analysis of variance indicated a significant difference between years served as a principal and relationship with the parents F(6, 882) = 2.533, p < .05. However, Scheffe post hoc test did not reveal significant differences in group comparisons. The results of the ANOVA are reported in Table 34. The analysis o f variance indicated a statistically significant difference between years served in present school and relationship with parents / r(2,888) = 4.365, p < .05. Scheffe post hoc test indicated a significant difference between the means of principals who served 1-5 years and 11 or more years in their present school (p = .024), with a small effect size d = .22. Principals who served in their present school 1-5 years (M = 1.80) were less satisfied with the relationship with the parents than principals who served more than 11 years (M = 1.65).

nalysis o f Variance f o r the R elationship with the B oard o f Education by Type o f School
The results of the ANOVA are reported in Table 35. The analysis of variance indicated a significant difference between type of school and relationship with parents   The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 36. The analysis of variance indicated a statistically significant difference based on the number of years served in the principalship and relationship with the teachers F(6, 882) = 2,272, p < .035.
However, a Scheffe post hoc test did not reveal significant differences for group comparisons. The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 37  The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in table 38. The analysis of variance indicated a statistically significant difference between type of school and the principal's relationship with the parents of the school F{2, 888) = 3.880, p < .05. Scheffe post hoc test indicated a significant difference between elementary and high school Table 38 A   The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 39 The results o f a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 40. The analysis of variance indicated no significant difference for job satisfaction with the consistency of the board making decisions in the best interest of students and years served as a principal in present school F (2, 889) = 1.160, p > .05. These results indicated that principals' job satisfaction was unaffected by years served in their present school.

Type of school
The results o f a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 41  A   .005* * The mean is significant wt the .05 level (2-tailed).

Interest o f Children by Type o f School
The results of a one-way ANOVA in Table 42 reported a statistically significant difference between number of years served as principal and how well the board of education acknowledged a principal's accomplishments F{6, 882) = 3.101, p < .05.
However, a Scheffe post hoc test showed no significant difference among groups of principals. Table 43 presents the results of the one-way ANOVA. The analysis of variance indicated no significant differences between how well board of education acknowledged a principal's accomplishm ents and number of years served in the present school F(2, 888) = 2.451, p > .05. These results indicated the variable did not affect this factor. The results of a one-way ANOVA reported in Table 44 indicated no significant differences between job satisfaction with how well the board of education acknowledged principals' accomplishm ents and type of school F (2, 888) = .636, p < .05. These results indicated type of school did not affect job satisfaction for this factor. The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in the Table 45. The analysis of variance indicated no significant difference between the number of years served as a principal and the annual salary F(6, 882) = 1.557, p > .05. These results indicated that Table 45 A

nalysis o f Variance f o r the Annual Salary by Years Served as a P rincipal
Years served as a principal satisfaction with the annual salary was unaffected by the years principals had served in the principalship.
In Table 46  The results of the one-way ANOVA reported in Table 47   The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 48. They indicated no statistically significant differences for job satisfaction between years served as a principal and the com m unity's image of school administrators F(6, 882) = 1.118, p > .05. These results on this factor of job satisfaction were unaffected by years served in the principalship.
In Table 49, the results of a one-way ANOVA indicated no statistically significant differences for jo b satisfaction between years served as principals in the present school and the com m unity's image of school administrators F(2, 888) = 2.738, p > .065. These results indicated that job satisfaction with the com m unity's image o f school administrators was unaffected by years principals served in their present school. The results of a one-way ANOVA in Table 50 indicated no significant difference for job satisfaction between type of school and the com m unity's image of school administrators F(2, 888) = .024, p > .05. Therefore, this variable did not affect this factor.    The results o f a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 52 The results of one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 53. The analysis of variance indicated no significant difference for type of school and job satisfaction with time spent on management tasks F(2, 889) = .856, p > .429. These results indicated that job satisfaction with time spent on management tasks was unaffected by type of school.   The results o f a one-way ANOVA reported in Table 54 indicate a statistically significant difference between years served as a principal and job satisfaction with time spent on leadership tasks F(6, 883) = 4.081, p < .001. However, Scheffe post hoc test indicated no significant differences.
The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 55. The analysis of variance indicated a statistically significant difference between years served in present schools and job satisfaction with time spent on leadership tasks F (2, 889) = 4.757, p < 05.
Scheffe post hoc analyses showed that means between principals who served 1 -5 years and principals who served 11 or more years differed significantly (p = .018), with a small effect size d = .24. Principals who served 1-5 years (M = 3.27) appeared to have been less satisfied with the time spent on leadership tasks than principals who served 11 or more years (M = 3.02).
The results of one-way ANOVA reported in Table 56  were more satisfied with the time spent on leadership activities than high school principals (Af = 3.27).  The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 57. The analysis of variance indicated no statistically significant differences between years served as a principal and the quality of a principal's relationship with the superintendent F(6, 877) = 1.475, p > .05. The data indicated that job satisfaction with the quality of the principal's relationship with the superintendent was unaffected by years in the principalship.
The results of one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 58. The analysis of variance indicated no statistically significant difference between years served in their present school and the quality of a principal's relationship with the superintendent F(s, 884) = .410, p > .05. The data indicated that job satisfaction and the quality of relationship with the superintendent was unaffected by years served in a principal's present school. The results of a one-way ANOVA, reported in Table 59  The results of one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 60. The analysis of variance indicated no statistically significant differences between years served as a principal and job satisfaction with the process superintendents use to evaluate principals F(6, 871) = .498, p > .05. These data indicated that jo b satisfaction with the process the superintendent uses to evaluate principals was unaffected by the principals' years served in the principalship. The results of a one-way ANOVA are presented in the Table 61. The analysis of variance indicated no statistically significant differences between years in present school and job satisfaction with the process the superintendent uses to evaluate principals F(877) = .824, p > 05. These results indicated that jo b satisfaction with the process the superintendent uses to evaluate principals as unaffected by years served in the present school.

Table 61
A

Years Served in Present School
Years served in present school The results of a one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 62. The analysis of variance indicated no statistically significant differences between type of school and the process the superintendent uses to evaluate principals F{2, 876) = .461, p > .05. These results indicated that job satisfaction with the process a superintendent uses to evaluate principals was unaffected by type of school.

C hapter 4 -2005 Study
The Forty-four percent of the respondents were principals in schools with between 300 and 599 students. Thirty-five percent served in schools of 600 pupils or more while 24.4% were at schools with less than 300 students enrolled.
More than half of the respondent (51.3%) had served as a principal for 1-10 years and 31.6% had served 11-20 years. Thirteen and half percent served 21-30 years and only 3.6% of the respondents had served more than 30 years.
Considering their experience in their present school, more than half of the principals (51.3%) had served 1-5 years, 25.9% had served 6-10 years and 22.8% had served more than 10 years.
Just under half of the respondents (45.6%) were employed in elementary schools, with 25.4% working in middle schools, and 29% were principals in high schools. The results for this question showed that the calculated mean (Af) and standard deviation ( Sub-Question a : W hat is the overall level of job satisfaction according to sex, years served as principal, years served in present school, and type of school? The number of respondents (AO, the mean (Af), and standard deviation (SD), (F) for ANOVA a (p) value for each groups are shown in Table 1.
The highest overall job satisfaction scores were observed for females (Af = 1.89,  The results of a one-way ANOVA in Table 64 showed no statistical significance between years served as a principal and overall job satisfaction f(6, 186), = .836, p > .05.
These results indicated that the overall job satisfaction was unaffected by the years principals had served in the principalship.  Table 65 results of one-way ANOVA reported no significant differences between overall job satisfaction and years served in present school F(2, 190) = .057, p > .05.
These results indicated that the overall job satisfaction was unaffected by the years a principal served in the present school.
The results of one-way ANOVA reported in Table 66 indicated no statistical significance between overall job satisfaction and type of school (2, 190) = .187, p > .829. This variable did not affect the overall level of job satisfaction.

Table 66
A The top three ranked levels of satisfaction were ( To answer this question it was necessary to use the same procedure as in the 1999 study. The results are tabulated and labeled. Each of the tables shows demographic variables, the numbers (AO of respondents for each group, the means (Af), the standard deviation (SD) for each group, /-values, F ratio (F), and significance (p) of each variable.

nalysis o f Variance f o r O verall Job Satisfaction by Type o f School
If it was necessary, a post hoc test followed each table in order to identify groups that differed. The results of post hoc tests are provided in narrative form.
An independent /-test was used to test demographic variable sex of the principal.
The /-test was used to analyze whether the proportion of males and females was different.
The results are provided in narrative form.
A one-way ANOVA was conducted to test for significant differences between groups regarding the principals' years served as principals, years served in their present school, and type of school. W here the F test was significant, Scheffe post hoc tests were conducted to identify groups that differed. C ohen's d effect size was computed as an indicator of how strong and how important the results were. In Table 68 the results of a one-way ANOVA indicated no significant difference for job satisfaction with the sense of accomplishm ent principals received from their work and the number of years served as a principal F(6, 186), = .725, p > .05. These results indicated that this factor did not affect job satisfaction.

Table 68
A The results of a one-way ANOVA in Table 69 indicated no statistically significant difference between job satisfaction with the sense of accomplishment principals received from their work and the number of years in their present school F(2, 190), = 1.123, p >

nalysis o f Variance f o r the Sense o f Accom plishm ent P rincipal Receives from Work by
.05, showing that this factor did not affect job satisfaction. The results of one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 70.   Table 71 results of a of one-way ANOVA indicate no significant difference between principals based on the number of years served as a principal and the professional growth opportunities /r(6,186), = .563, p > .05. Data indicated that job satisfaction with professional growth opportunities was not impacted by years served as a principal.
The results of one-way ANOVA reported in Table 72 indicated no significant differences between principals serving a specified number of years in their present  The results of one-way ANOVA as reported in Table 73  and females (M = 2.56, SD = 1.12). These data indicated that job satisfaction regarding the adequacy of administrative support provided for principals was not influenced by sex. Table 74 results o f a one-way ANOVA showed no significant differences between years served as a principal and adequacy of administrative support. F(6, 186) = .555, p > .05. This variable did not affect jo b satisfaction. In Table 75 the results of a one-way ANOVA indicated no significant differences between job satisfaction of administrative support and years served in present school F(2 190) = 1.574, p > .05. The data indicated that the factor did not impact job satisfaction with the adequacy of administrative support. The results of one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 76. The analysis of variance indicated no statistically significant difference between adequacy of administrative support and type of school F(2, 190) = .376, p > .05. Again, type of school did not impact job satisfaction with the adequacy of administrative support. These results indicated that job satisfaction with the adequacy of support services provided for principals was not impacted by the sex of the principals.  Table 77 reports the results o f one-way ANOVA. The data showed no significant difference between job satisfaction with adequacy o f support services and a principal's years served as a principal F(6, 186) = .844, p > .05, indicating that job satisfaction with the adequacy of support services provided was not impacted by this factor. The results of a one-way ANOVA in Table 78 indicated no significant difference between jo b satisfaction with the adequacy of support services and the number of years served in present school F(2, 190) = .566, p > .05. These results indicated this factor did not influence satisfaction with the adequacy of support services provided for principals The one-way ANOVA results reported in Table 79 indicated no significant differences in job satisfaction with the adequacy of support services provided for principals and type of school F(2, 190), = .671, p > .05. The data indicated that type of school did not impact job satisfaction with the adequacy of support services provided for principals.

Table 79
A Factor 5. Community demands placed on you as a principal outside of the school. This indicated that job satisfaction with community demands placed on principals was not impacted by the sex of the principals.  Table 80 results of a one-way ANOVA indicated no statistical significance between job satisfaction regarding community demands and the number of years served as a principal F(6, 186), = .809, p > .05. This indicated that the variable did not impact job satisfaction with community demands placed on a principal outside of the school. Table 81 reports the results of one-way ANOVA indicating no statistical significant difference for job satisfaction with com munity demands placed on principals and years served in their present school F(2, 190), = .677, p > 05. These results demonstrated no impact from this factor on job satisfaction with community demands placed on principal outside of the school. The results of one-way ANOVA reported in Table 82  The results of one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 83. These data indicated no significant difference between extracurricular dem ands placed on a principal and the Table 83 A

nalysis o f Variance f o r E xtracurricular D em ands P laced on You as a P rincipal O utside o f the School by Years Served as a P rincipal
Years served as a principal years served as a principal F(6, 186), = .934, p > .472. These results indicated that job satisfaction with extracurricular activities placed on a principal were unaffected by the number of years served as a principal. The results of a one-way ANOVA reported in Table 84 indicated no statistical significance between years served in present school and extracurricular demand placed on principals F(2, 190) = .738, p > .05. These results indicated this variable did not impact job satisfaction with extracurricular demands placed on principals.    The results of one-way ANOVA in Table 86 reported no significant difference between time available that put balance in the life of principals and years served as a principal F{6, 186), = 1.283, p > .05. These results indicated that job satisfaction on this factor was not affected by years served as a principal.
The results of one-way ANOVA reported in Table 87

Table 86
A

Life by Years Served as a Principal
Years served as a principal In Table 88

Table 88
A  The independent /-test indicated no significant differences, /(191), = -1.591, p > .113, for job satisfaction with relationship to the administrative team/cabinet between males (Af = 1.72) and females (M = 1.98). These results indicated sex o f the principals did not affect job satisfaction with the administrative team/cabinet. The results of one-way ANOVA are reported in Table 89. The data indicated a statistically significant difference for principals' years served as principals and the relationship with the administrative team/cabinet (F(6, 186), = 2.313, p < .05. However, a Scheffe post hoc test did not reveal any significant differences among the means of the groups.

nalysis o f Variance f o r Time A vailable that Put Balance in P rin c ip a l's Life by Type o f
The results for one-way ANOVA reported in Table 90 indicated no significant difference for number of years served in the present school and the principals' relationship with the administrative team/cabinet F(2, 190) = 1.525, p > .05. These results showed that jo b satisfaction with the administrative team/cabinet was not affected by the num ber of years a principal served in the present school.

Table 90
A

Served in Present School
Years served in present school In Table 91 the results of a one-way ANOVA are reported. They indicated no significant difference for type of school and relationship with the administrative team/cabinet F(2, 190) = .104, p > .05. These results indicated that job satisfaction in this category was unaffected by type o f school.  The results of a one-way ANOVA in Table 92 indicated no significant differences for the relationship with the board of education and number of years served as a principal F (2, 190) = 1.374, p > .05. This indicated the variable did not affect job satisfaction with relationship to the board of education.  Table 93 results of a one-way ANOVA showed no significant differences for the relationship with the board of education and the number of years served in the present school F{2, 190) = 1.772, p > .05. The data show no effect from this variable on job satisfaction with relationship to the board of education.  Table 94 A The results of a one-way ANOVA are presented in Table 94. The results o f a one-way ANOVA as reported in Table 95 indicated no significant differences between the relationship with the parents and the number of years served as a principal F(6, 186) = 1.435, p > .05. These results indicated that job satisfaction regarding this factor was not impacted by years served as a principal. The results of a one-way ANOVA presented in Table 96 indicated no significant difference for number of years served in the present school and relationship with the parents F{2, 190) = 2.437, p > .05. These data showed this variable did not influence job satisfaction regarding relationship with the parents of the principals' schools.  The results of a one-way ANOVA in Table 98   A Scheffe post hoc test indicated a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of principals who served in their present schools 1-5 years and principals who served in their present school more than 11 years (p = .014), with a moderate effect size d = .59. Principals who served in their present school 11 or more years appeared to have been more satisfied with job satisfaction with the relationship to their teachers than principals who served in present schools 1-5 years.

nalysis o f Variance f o r the R elationship with the B oard o f Education by Type o f School
Table 99

Served in Present School
Years served in present N M school The results o f a one-way ANOVA are presented in Table 100. They indicated no significant difference between type of school and relationship with the teachers F(2, 190) = 1.548, p > .05. These results indicated that type of school did not affect job satisfaction with relationship with the teachers of principals' school.  The results of a one-way ANOVA are presented in Table 101. They indicated no significant difference for years served as a principal and the board making decisions in the best interest of students F(6, 186) = .528, p > .05. These results showed that the job satisfaction with this factor was not impacted by the number o f years served as a principal. In Table 102  The results of a one-way ANOVA presented in Table 103

Interest o f Children by Years Served in Present School
Years served in present school Factor 13. How well the board of education acknowledges your accom plishm ents.  The results of a one-way ANOVA presented in Table 104 indicated no significant differences for number of years served as a principal and how well the board of education acknowledged principals' accomplishm ents (F6, 186) = 1.219, p > .05. These data indicated that job satisfaction regarding this factor was unaffected by the num ber of years served as a principal.
The results of a one-way ANOVA presented in Table 105  This data showed that the job satisfaction regarding this factor was unaffected by the number of years the principal had served in present school.   The results of a one-way ANOVA presented in Table 107 indicate no significant differences for number of years served as a principal and the principal's annual salary F{6, 186) = .284, p > .05. These results showed that the principals' job satisfaction with annual salary was unaffected by the number o f years served. The results of a one-way ANOVA presented in Table 108 indicated no significant difference for years served in the present school and principals' annual salary F(2, 190) = 1.608), p > .05. These results indicated that principals' job satisfaction with annual salary was unaffected by this variable.
Table 108 The results of a one-way ANOVA shown in Table 109

Table 110
A The results o f a one-way ANOVA are presented in Table 111   The results of a one-way ANOVA presented in Table 112 Table 113 presents the results of one-way ANOVA indicating no significant difference F(6, 186) = .145, p > .05 for number o f years served as a principal and time spent on management tasks. These data showed that job satisfaction with this factor was not impacted by the number of years served as a principal.

nalysis o f Variance f o r the Com m unity's Image o f School A dm inistrators by Years
One-way ANOVA results (Table 114)   The one-way ANOVA results presented in Table 115  In Table 116 results of a one-way ANOVA indicated no significant difference for years served as a principal and time spent on leadership activities F(6, 186) = 1.899, p > .05. These data indicated that job satisfaction with time spent on leadership activities were unaffected by number of years served as a principal. The results of a one-way ANOVA shown in Table 117   The results of a one-way ANOVA as presented in Table 118  In Table 119 the results of a one-way ANOVA indicated no significant differences between years served as a principal and the quality of principals' relationship with the superintendent F(6, 186) = .823, p > .05. These data indicated this variable did not impact job satisfaction with the quality of principals' relationship with the superintendent. Table 119 The

Superintendent by Years Served as a Principal
Years served as a principal In Table 120   The results of a one-way ANOVA shown in Table 121  The independent /-test indicated no significant difference between males (M = 2.20) and females (M = 2.18). These data indicated that job satisfaction with the process the superintendent uses to evaluate principals was not influenced by the sex of the principals.

Table 122
The The results of a one-way ANOVA in Table 122   The results of a one-way ANOVA presented in Table 123    Years served in their present school with overall jo b satisfaction There was no statistically significant differences for this category.  Determining the job satisfaction level of principals in Iowa may provide insight into the support principals need in order to feel satisfaction in their jobs and, thus, remain in the principalship for a longer time. It is also important to understand why the school principal position is becoming less popular (Else & Sodoma, 1999;Cooley & Shen, 1999 interpersonal relations with parents, and salary. Principals were asked to rate their satisfaction level with each factor and with their overall level of job satisfaction as well.
The return o f the questionnaires was 76% in the 1999 study and 64.3% in the 2005 study.
H erzberg's Two-Factor Theory, claims that the factors leading to job satisfaction are motivators or intrinsic factors of the job and factors leading to job dissatisfaction are hygienes or extrinsic factors of the job. This theory is often utilized in educational settings (Hoy & Miskel, 1996). While some studies supported results o f H erzberg's theory (Schwartz, Jenusaitis, & Stark, 1963;M oxley, 1977M oxley, , Rasmussen, 1990, other studies only partially supported his theory (Graham & Messner, 1998;Lacey, 2000) or did not support his theory at all (King, 1970, Bockman, 1971, Steers & Porter, 1979Davis, 1982 Tables 5 and 67 determined satisfaction levels.
Sub-Question a: W hat is the overall level of job satisfaction according to sex, years served as a principal, years served in their present school, and school type?
In response to this question relative to the overall job satisfaction by sex, female principals in the 1999 study were very satisfied and male principals were moderately satisfied with overall job satisfaction. In the 2005 study female principals were very satisfied in overall job satisfaction. Male principals were slightly less satisfied but still very satisfied with overall job satisfaction.
W hen looking at years served as a principal, those serving 26-30 years in the principalship in the 1999 study were very satisfied with overall job satisfaction. Other groups o f principals, serving 21-25 years and 31 and more years were slightly less satisfied but still very satisfied with overall jo b satisfaction. Other groups serving as principals were moderately satisfied. For the 2005 study, the highest satisfaction was for principals serving 1-5 years. These principals were very satisfied with overall job satisfaction. Other groups of principals serving 6-10 and 11-15 years in the principalship were slightly less satisfied but still very satisfied. All other groups were moderately satisfied.
In years served in their present school, the most satisfied principals had served 11 and more years and were very satisfied with overall level of job satisfaction. All other groups serving in this category had lower means but were still very satisfied. In the 2005 study, the highest satisfaction was for principals serving in their present schools 6-10 years. These principals were very satisfied with overall job satisfaction. All other groups had lower means but were also very satisfied.
Elementary school principals in the 1999 study were very satisfied with overall job satisfaction. Principals of middle/junior high schools and high school were moderately satisfied. In the 2005 study, the highest satisfaction was for m iddle/junior high school principals who were very satisfied with overall job satisfaction. Elementary and high school principals while slightly less satisfied were still very satisfied with overall job satisfaction. Those who were very satisfied in the 1999 study had served as principals more than 31 years. In other categories of years served as a principal, respondents were m oderately satisfied.

Sub
In the 2005 study, the most satisfied group o f principals had served 21-25 years.
They were very satisfied with the sense of accomplishment. The group of principals serving 31 and more years in the principalship were moderately satisfied while other groups were very satisfied with the sense of accomplishm ents they receive from the their work.
In both studies the more experienced principals were more satisfied with their sense o f accomplishment.
In years served in their present school, the highest satisfaction in both studies was in the 11 and more years category. These principals were very' satisfied with the sense of accomplishment. All other categories had lower means but also were very satisfied in both studies.
In the type of school category, the highest satisfaction for both studies was observed for elementary schools. These principals were very' satisfied with sense of accomplishment with exception of middle/junior high school principals, who were moderately satisfied in the 2005 study.
2. Professional growth opportunities provided for you.
In both studies female principals were very satisfied with professional growth opportunities. Male principals were moderately satisfied in both studies.
Those most satisfied as principals in the 1999 study had served 31 and more years in the principalship. They were very satisfied with professional growth opportunities. In all other categories the principals were moderately satisfied. In the 2005 study the highest satisfaction was for principals with 11-15 and 16-20 years of experience. They were moderately satisfied with professional growth opportunities. All other categories of principals were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied.
The highest satisfaction level in the 1999 was for those serving 6-10 years in their present school. These principals were moderately satisfied with the professional growth opportunities. In other categories, principals were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied. The highest score in the 2005 study was for principals serving 11 and more years who were very satisfied with the professional growth opportunities. All other categories were moderately satisfied.
In the type of school category the highest satisfaction for both studies was observed for elementary principals who were moderately satisfied with professional growth opportunities. All other categories were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied in both studies.
3. The adequacy of administrative support provided for principals.
The highest satisfaction for this factor in both studies was for male principals.
They were m oderately satisfied with administrative support. Female principals had lower satisfaction means but also were m oderately satisfied in both studies.
The highest satisfaction in 1999 was for those serving as a principal 1-5 years and in the 2005 study, for 21-25 years. In both studies, principals were m oderately satisfied with administrative support. All other groups of principals were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied in both studies.
The most satisfied in the 1999 study were principals who served in their present schools 1-5 years while in the 2005 study, the most satisfied principals were serving 11 and more years. In both studies, the principals were moderately satisfied with the administrative support. All other groups of principals had lower means but also were moderately satisfied.
In the type of school category, the highest satisfaction level in the 1999 study was for high schools principals, and in the 2005, study for middle/junior high school principals. These principals were moderately satisfied with the administrative support services. All other groups of principals were slightly less satisfied in both studies but still moderately satisfied.

4.
The adequacy o f support services provided for principal.
The highest satisfaction in the 1999 study was for males, while in 2005 study, the highest satisfaction was for females. In both studies the female and male principals were moderately satisfied with the adequacy of support services.
Those moderately satisfied as a principal in the 1999 and 2005 studies served 21-25 years in the principalship. W ith the exception of principals who had served 26-30 years in the 2005 study, who were neutral, all other groups in both studies had a slightly lower means but were also m oderately satisfied.
The highest satisfaction was in both studies was for those serving 11 and more years in their present school who were moderately satisfied with the adequacy o f support services. All other groups of principals in both studies were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied.
In the 1999 study, moderately satisfied principals in the type of school category were high school principals. In the 2005 study, moderately satisfied principals were in middle/junior high schools. In both studies, the principals of other groups were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied with the adequacy of support services.
5. Community demands placed on principals outside of the school. Principals serving 1-5 years in their present school were the most satisfied in the 1999 study. They were neutral. All other groups were slightly less satisfied but were also neutral. In the 2005 study, the moderately satisfied group of principals was those serving 1-5 years in their present school. The group serving 6-10 years was slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied, while principals serving 11 and more years in their present school were neutral.
In the type of school category, elementary school principals were moderately satisfied in the 1999 study. Principals of middle/junior high schools, and high schools were neutral. In the 2005 study, the highest satisfaction was for elementary principals who were moderately satisfied. M iddle/junior high school principals were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied, while high school principals were neutral.
7. Time available for activities that put balance in the life of the principal.
The highest satisfaction in the 1999 study was for male principals and in the 2005 study for female principals. In both studies the principals were neutral.
Those most satisfied as principals in the 1999 study served 26-30 years in the principalship compared to those serving 11-15 years in the principalship in the 2005 study. In both cases, these principals were neutral with the time available for activities that put balance in the life of principals. All other groups of principals had slightly lower means but were also neutral.
The most satisfied in the 1999 study were principals serving 11 and more years in their present schools compared to those serving 6-10 years in the 2005 study. In both cases, the principals were neutral with the time available for activities that put balance in the life of principals. All other groups of principals had lower means but also were neutral.
In Those very satisfied as principals in the 1999 study were principals who had served 6-10 years in the principalship. The group of principals serving 31 and more years was m oderately satisfied. All other groups in the 1999 study were slightly less satisfied but still very satisfied. In the 2005 study, the very satisfied group was principals serving 6-10 years. The groups o f principals serving 1-5, 16-20, and 21-25 years in the principalship were slightly less satisfied but were in the moderately satisfied category.
All other groups were neutral.
In the 1999 study, principals who had served 6-10 years in their present school were very satisfied. All other groups were slightly less satisfied but also very satisfied. In the 2005 study the highest satisfaction was for principals serving 1-5 years in their present school. These principals were very satisfied. The other group o f principals serving 11 and more years with a slightly lower mean was also very satisfied when compared to the group serving 6-10 years in their present school, which were neutral.
In the type of school, high schools principals were very satisfied in the 1999 study compared to m iddle/junior high school principals in the 2005 study. In both studies, all other groups of the principals were slightly less satisfied but still very' satisfied with the relationship with the administrative team/cabinet. 9. Relationship with the board of education.
The highest satisfaction in the 1999 study was for female principals. In 2005 study, the highest satisfaction was for male principals. In both studies, these principals were moderately satisfied with the board of education.
Those most satisfied as principals in the 1999 study had served 31 and more years in the principalship. They were very satisfied. All other groups served as principals had slightly lower means but also were moderately satisfied. In the 2005 study the most satisfied were principals with 21-25 years experience in the principalship. This group of principals was moderately satisfied. Other groups who had served in principalship 1-5, and 6-10 years were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied. All other groups were neutral.
The most satisfied in the 1999 study were principals serving 11 and more years in their present school. This group of principals was moderately satisfied. All other groups were slightly less satisfied but also m oderately satisfied category. In the 2005 study, the most satisfied were principals who had served in their present schools 6-10 years. This group was very satisfied with the relationship with the board of education. All other groups o f principals were moderately satisfied.
In the type of school category, high school principals were most satisfied ranking themselves as m oderately satisfied. All other groups had lower means but also were moderately satisfied. In the 2005 study, principals very satisfied were from middle/junior high schools. The principals of high schools had a slightly lower mean but were also very satisfied, while principals of elementary schools were moderately satisfied.
10. Relationship with the parents of your school.
Female principals had the highest satisfaction in the 1999 study. In the 2005 study, the most satisfied were male principals. In both studies, these principals were very satisfied with the relationship with the parents.
Those very satisfied as principals in the 1999 study served 31 and more years in the principalship. All other groups were slightly less satisfied but still very satisfied category. In the 2005 study the most satisfied group of principals were those principals with 21-25 years of experience who were very satisfied with the relationship with parents.
W ith the exception of principals in the principalship who had served 26-30 and 31 and more years and who were moderately satisfied, all other groups o f principals were very satisfied.
The most satisfied in the 1999 and 2005 studies were principals who served 11 and more years in their present schools. These principals were very satisfied with the relationship with the parents. All other groups of principals in both studies had slightly lower means but also were very satisfied.
Principals of elementary schools in both studies were very' satisfied with the relationship with the parents. All other groups of principals in both studies were slightly less satisfied but still very satisfied with relationships with the parents.
11. Relationship with the teachers of your school.
The highest satisfaction in both studies was for female principals who were very' satisfied. Male principals had slightly lower means but also were very satisfied with the relationship with teachers in the 1999 and 2005 studies.
Those most satisfied as principals in the 1999 study were principals serving 31 and more years in the principalship. In the 2005 study, the most satisfied were principals who had served 26-30 years in the principalship. In both studies, these principals were very satisfied with the relationship with the teachers. All other groups of principals had slightly low er means but were also very satisfied.
The highest satisfaction in 1999 was for those principals serving 6-10 years in their present school. In the 2005 study, the most satisfied principals were those with 11 and more years of experience in present schools. In both studies these principals were very satisfied with the relationship with the teachers. All other groups o f principals had lower means in both studies but also were very satisfied.
In the 1999 study, the most satisfied were elementary principals and, in the 2005 study, middle/junior highs school principals. In both studies these principals were very satisfied with the relationship with the teachers. All other groups of principals in both were studies moderately satisfied.
12. The consistency of the board in making decisions in the best interest of children.
In the 1999 and 2005 studies male principals were moderately satisfied with the consistency o f the board in making decisions in the best interest of children. In 1999 and 2005, female principals had lower means but also were moderately satisfied.
Those most satisfied as principals in the 1999 study served 31 and more years in the principalship. This group of principals was moderately satisfied. All other groups were slightly less satisfied but still in the moderately satisfied category. In the 2005 study, the most satisfied group of principals were those serving in the principalship 1-5 years. This group of principals was very' satisfied. All other groups of principals were moderately satisfied.
The highest satisfaction was in the 1999 study for those principals serving in present schools 1-5 years. These principals were moderately satisfied. All other groups were slightly less satisfied but still in the moderately satisfied category. In the 2005 study, very satisfied principals were those with 6-10 years of experience in their present schools. All other groups were moderately satisfied with the consistency of the board in making decisions in the best interest of children.
In the 1999 study, the highest satisfaction was for high school principals who said they were moderately satisfied. All other groups of principals had lower means but also were moderately satisfied. In the 2005 study the most satisfied principals were from middle/junior high schools. This group was very satisfied with the consistency o f the board in making decisions in the best interest o f students. All other groups were moderately satisfied.
13. How well the board of education acknowledges your accomplishments.
Female principals had the highest satisfaction in the 1999 study. They were moderately satisfied. Male principals were slightly less satisfied but also moderately satisfied.
In the 2005 study, the highest satisfaction was for male principals. They were moderately satisfied with how well the board of education acknowledges the principal's accomplishments. Female principals had a lower mean but also were moderately satisfied.
Those most satisfied as principals in the 1999 study served 1-5 years in the principalship and were moderately satisfied. All other groups had slightly lower means but were also moderately satisfied. In the 2005 study, the most satisfied group of principals were those who had served in the principalship 6-10 years. This group of principals was moderately satisfied. All other groups were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied. The only group that was neutral was the group of principals serving 31 and more years in the principalship.
The most satisfied in the 1999 study were principals serving 1-5 years in their present schools. These principals were moderately satisfied. All other groups of principals serving in their present schools were slightly less satisfied but also moderatelysatisfied. In the 2005 study the most satisfied group of principals was those serving in present schools 6-10 years. This group of principals was in the moderately satisfied category. All other groups in this variable had lower means but were also moderately satisfied.
In the type of school category, the most satisfied in the 1999 study were principals of high schools who were moderately satisfied. All other groups were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied. In the 2005 study the most satisfied were middle/junior high school principals who said they were moderately satisfied. All other groups had slightly lower means but were also moderately satisfied.
14. Your annual salary. were moderately satisfied with their annual salary. All other groups o f principals had lower means but also were moderately satisfied.
The m oderately satisfied group in the 1999 study was principals who had served in their present schools 11 and more years. The group of principals serving 1-5 years had slightly lower mean but were also moderately satisfied, and the group of principals serving in present school 6-10 years was neutral. In the 2005 study, the moderately satisfied were those serving in their present schools 6 -1 0 years. All other groups had lower means but also were moderately satisfied.
In the type of school category in 1999, high school principals were moderately satisfied. Elementary principals with a lower mean were also moderately satisfied, while middle/junior high school principals were neutral. In the 2005 study, the highest satisfaction was for m iddle/junior high school principals who were moderately satisfied with their annual salary. All other groups of principals were slightly less satisfied but still in the moderately satisfied category.
15. The com m unity's image of school administrator.
Female principals showed the highest satisfaction in the 1999 study. They were moderately satisfied. Male principals were slightly less satisfied but also moderately satisfied. In the 2005 study the highest satisfaction was for male principals who were moderately satisfied with the com m unity's image of school administrators. Female principals had a lower mean but were also moderately satisfied.
Those most satisfied as principals in the 1999 study served 31 and more years in the principalship. These principals were moderately satisfied. All other groups served as principals had lower means but were also moderately satisfied. In the 2005 study, the most satisfied group of principals served in the principalship 21-25 years. These principals were moderately satisfied. All other groups had lower means but also were moderately satisfied.
The highly satisfied in the 1999 and 2005 studies were principals who had served 11 and more years in their present schools. These principals were m oderately satisfied with the com m unity's image of school administrators. All other groups of principals in both studies were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied.
In the type of school category, in the 1999 study the most satisfied were high school principals and in the 2005 study, middle/junior high school principals. These groups of principals were moderately satisfied. All other groups of principals had lower means in both studies but were also moderately satisfied.
16. Time spent on management tasks.
The highest satisfaction in the 1999 study was found in male principals. They were neutral in their evaluation of the time spent in management tasks. Although female principals had a lower mean, they also were neutral. In the 2005 study male principals still showed the highest satisfaction. Female principals with a slightly lower mean were also in the neutral category.
Those most satisfied as principals in 1999 study had served 26-30 years in the principalship. This group o f principals was moderately satisfied. Those serving 31 and more years had a slightly lower means but were still moderately satisfied. All other groups were neutral. In the 2005 study, the group of principals who had served in the principalship 6-10 years was moderately satisfied. All other groups were neutral.
The highest satisfaction in the 1999 study was for those principals serving 11 and more years in their present schools. These principals were moderately satisfied. All other groups were neutral. In the 2005, the highest satisfaction was for principals serving in their present schools 6-10 years. They were moderately satisfied with time spent on management tasks. All other groups were neutral. The highest satisfaction score in the 1999 study was for male principals. They were neutral in their evaluation of the time spent on leadership activities. Female principals were also neutral with a lower mean score. In the 2005 study, the highest satisfaction was for female principals who were moderately satisfied with the time spent on leadership activities. M ales were neutral.
Those most satisfied as principals in the 1999 study had served 26-30 years in the principalship. This group of principals was moderately satisfied. The groups of principals serving 16-20 and 21-25 years in the principalship were slightly less satisfied but still in the m oderately satisfied category. All other groups were neutral. In the 2005 study the most satisfied group of principals were those serving in the principalship 6-10 years.
These principals were moderately satisfied with time spent on leadership activities. The group of principals serving 31 and more years in the principalship had a lower mean but also was moderately satisfied. All other groups o f principals were neutral.
The highest satisfaction in the 1999 study for number of years in the principalship was the group of principals serving in present schools 11 and more years. These principals were neutral. All other groups were slightly less satisfied but still neutral. In the 2005 study, the most satisfied group of principals served in their present schools 6 -10 years. These principals were moderately satisfied with time spent on leadership activities. All other groups serving were neutral.
In the school type category the highest level o f satisfaction in the 1999 study was principals of elementary schools who were neutral. Principals of m iddle/junior high and high schools had lower means but also were neutral. In the 2005 study, principals of middle/junior high schools were moderately satisfied with time spent on leadership activities. Principals of elementary and high schools were neutral.
In the 1999 study, 67.1 % of principals spent less than 25% of their daily time for leadership activities, 30.4% spent 26-66%, and 2.5% spent more then a 65% on leadership activities. In the 2005 study, 48.2% o f principals spent less than 25% on leadership activities, 49.2% spent 26-65% and only 2.6% of principals spent more than 65% of their daily time on educational leadership activities.
18. The quality o f principal's relationship with the superintendent.
Male principals had the highest satisfaction in the 1999 study. They were very satisfied with the quality of the relationship with the superintendent. Female principals were slightly less satisfied but also were very satisfied. In the 2005 study, female principals were very satisfied while male principals had a lower mean but were also very satisfied.
Those most satisfied as principals in the 1999 study were those serving 6-10 years. They were very satisfied. All other groups of principals except one had slightly lower means but were very satisfied. However, principals serving in the principalship lb-20 years were moderately satisfied. In the 2005 study most satisfied were principals serving in the principalship 6-10 years. They said they were very satisfied with their relationship with the superintendent. With slightly lower means groups serving 1-5, 11-15, 16-20, and 26-30 years in the principalship were also very satisfied. All other groups were neutral.
The highest satisfaction in both the 1999 and 2005 studies on this factor was for those principals serving in their present schools 1-5 years. These principals were very satisfied, while all other groups in both studies had lower means but also were very satisfied.
Principals of elementary schools in 1999 were very satisfied with the quality of the relationship with the superintendent. Principals of middle/junior high and high schools principals were slightly less satisfied but still very satisfied. In the 2005 study, principals of high schools were very satisfied. Principals of m iddle/junior high and elementary schools had lower means but also were very satisfied with the relationship with the superintendent.
19. The process the superintendent uses to evaluate principals.
The highest satisfaction in 1999 study found was in male principals who were moderately satisfied. Female principals with a lower mean were also m oderately satisfied.
However, in the 2005 study, females had the highest satisfaction. They were moderately satisfied with the process the superintendent uses to evaluate them. Male principals had a slightly lower mean but were also moderately satisfied.
Those most satisfied as principals in the 1999 study based on years as principals were those who served 31 and more years. This group of principals was moderately satisfied. All other groups were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied. In the 2005 study, the most satisfied group of principals were those serving in the principalship 1-5 years. This group of principals was m oderately satisfied. All other groups serving as principals had lower means but also were moderately satisfied.
The highest satisfaction in 1999 was for those principals serving 11 and more years in their present schools. These principals were moderately satisfied. All other groups serving in their present schools were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied. In the 2005 study, the highest satisfaction was for those principals serving 6-10 years in their present school. These principals were moderately satisfied with the process the superintendent uses to evaluate principals. All other groups of principals for this variable had lower means but also were moderately satisfied.
In the type o f school category the highest satisfaction in the 1999 study was for highs school principals who were moderately satisfied. Elementary and middle/junior high school principals were slightly less satisfied but still moderately satisfied. In the 2005 study, elementary schools principals were the most satisfied group. They were moderately satisfied with the process the superintendent uses to evaluate principals.
M iddle/junior high school principals and high school principals had lower means but also were m oderately satisfied with the process superintendents use to evaluate principals.

Research Question 2
Is there a significant difference in Iowa principals' job satisfaction in the 2005 study when contrasted with the 1999 study in overall level job satisfaction?
Overall, the principals in the 2005 study were more satisfied than those in the 1999 study. In 1999, the principals were moderately satisfied, and in 2005, they were very satisfied. Statistically significant differences were found for overall jo b satisfaction between the two studies. Principals in the 2005 study were significantly more satisfied than those in the 1999 study.
Sub-Question a: Is there a significant difference in overall jo b satisfaction in 2005 when contrasted with job satisfaction in 1999 according to sex, years served as a principal, years served in their present school, and type of school?
One significant difference was found for male principals. M ales in the 2005 study were significantly more satisfied than males in the 1999 study. No significant differences were found for female principals. Between male principals and female principals the study found female principals in 2005 were more satisfied with overall jo b satisfaction than male principals.
In number of years served as a principal the significant differences were found for two categories -1-5 years category and 11-15 years. The results indicated that these groups of principals were significantly more satisfied with the overall jo b satisfaction in 2005 study than in 1999 study.
There was no significant difference in years served in their present school and overall job satisfaction.
In type of school category, the statistical significance was found for middle/junior high schools. They appeared to have been more satisfied in the 2005 study than in the 1999 study.
Sub-Question b: Is there a significant difference in satisfaction level for each of the 20 job factors in the 1999 study when contrasted to the 2005 study?
In response to this question, significant differences were found for ( In all of these factors, male principals were more satisfied in the 2005 study than in the 1999 study.
In years served as a principal, a statistical significance was found for principals serving 1-5 years in their indication of overall job satisfaction. The principals serving in the principalship 1-5 years appeared to have been more satisfied in the 2005 study than the same category of principals in the 1999 study.
Significant differences were found for principals serving 6-10 years in the principalship in ( In the category 26 -30 years, significant differences were found in the relationship with the parents of the school. Principals in the 1999 study appeared to be significantly more satisfied with their relationship with the parents than principals in the 2005 study.
In years served in their present school, significant differences were found for the 1-5 years category in the adequacy of administrative support provided for the principal.
Principals in the 1999 study appeared to have been significantly more satisfied with the adequacy of administrative support than principals in the 2005 study.
Significant differences were found in the 6-10 years category for the ( were significantly more satisfied in all of these factors.
In the 11 and more years category, a statistical significance was found for the relationship with the teachers. Principals in the 2005 study were significantly more satisfied with the relationship with the teachers than principals in the 1999 study.
In the type of school category, a statistically significant difference was seen for elementary schools for the process the superintendent uses to evaluate the principals.
Principals in 2005 study appeared significantly more satisfied with the process the superintendent uses to evaluate principals than in 1999.
Significant differences were found for middle school principals in ( study were more satisfied with these hygiene factors than principals in the 1999 study.

Conclusions
This study was intended to assess, through questionnaires, the job satisfaction of public elementary, middle/junior high, and high school principals in Iowa.
Job satisfaction was measured through 20 questions in a questionnaire. The results show that principals were overall more satisfied in 2005 than in 1999 study. From the descriptive statistics perspective examined by sex, years served as principals, years served in their present schools, and type of school, the overall satisfaction score has varied between highest mean score of 1.80 (very' satisfied) and lowest mean score of 2.28 {moderately satisfied).
When comparing the 1999 and 2005 studies, significant differences are seen only between male principals in both studies. Thus, there is a significant discrepancy between how male respondents perceived and rated their overall job satisfaction in com parison to their female colleagues. No significant difference is seen between males and females in both studies.
The results for overall jo b satisfaction are found different in the 1999 study and in the 2005 study for principals serving in the principalship 1-5 and 11-15 years, and for middle junior/high school principals.
Principals in 2005 are more satisfied than they were in 1999. This is interesting because during these six years greater focus has been placed on raising student these results call attention to the fact that principals are still very busy and overwhelmed by school activities not only during the work days but many times also on weekends. In both studies, principals continued to be less satisfied with time spent on management tasks and time spent on educations leadership tasks, extracurricular activities, and with time for activities that put balance in the life of principals. These problems result in principals leaving the principalship and teachers or other school adm inistrators licensed for K-12 schools not wanting to enter the principalship (Behrens, 2003). Principals need support so they spend less time on management tasks and more time on leadership activities. Schools also need to reduce demands outside of the school so principals have more time to put balance in their lives.
The research refers to the fact that principals spend much more time on management tasks than on educational leadership activities. The results of both the 1999 and 2005 studies confirm this trend. This trend contradicts the expectations of the public, who want principals to be educational leaders of their school, not just only managers of school affairs (Else & Sodoma, 1999, Rayfield & Diamantes, 2003. In both studies, principals are spending less time on leadership activities that causes less satisfaction in their jobs.
Principals are also less satisfied with the image they have as com munity school administrators. A discrepancy exists between principals and the school board's consistency in making decisions in the best interests of students and in how well the board of education acknowledges principals' accomplishments. These recognition factors point out that principals are very sensitive to their superiors' evaluation of their work.
Their professional view of educational problems and expertise are confronted by the com m unity's and board's view, and their opinions on questions of everyday school activities are sometimes exposed to the unnecessary tension between school board and principals. However, this does not seem to impact their overall satisfaction with the job.
On the other hand, interpersonal relationships with teachers, parents, and superintendents are high in both studies. Principals in Schm idt's study (1976) showed more problems with interpersonal relationships with subordinates. The results in Sm ith's study reflect increased tension between principals and teachers. This is not the case of the current study. In 1999 and also in 2005, the relationships with teachers, and parents were high and principals say they are very satisfied or moderately satisfied with these relationships. Principals give high ratings to these hygiene factors in both studies. This points out the good work of school districts in the areas of school policy and administration.
Principals with more experience have a higher satisfaction with their sense of accomplishment than principals with less experience. These findings are the same in both studies. The studies found that the principals were satisfied in their current position and they perceived satisfaction in their career in the principalship.
Another interesting fact is how females and males perceive some factors. While statistically significant differences are seen between females in both studies on only one motivator factor, (the process the superintendent uses to evaluate principals), six significant differences are seen between male principals in both studies. These include two motivators (how well the board o f education acknowledges principal's accomplishment and the com m unity's image of school administrators), three hygiene factors (consistency of the board in making decisions in the best interest of students, relationship with the board of education, and annual salary), and in overall job satisfaction. In all of these factors, principals were more satisfied in the 2005 study than in the 1999 study. Male principals in the 1999 and the 2005 study were more satisfied with annual salary than female principals. These findings are consistent with Graham and M essner's (1998) study. In addition, Gates, Ringel, Santibanez, Chung, and Ross (2003) found that women received comparable pay for the same work in the public sector. More autonomy in personal management, redesign expectations, reevaluation of their workload, and compensation will lead to higher job satisfaction and higher motivation for principals. It is necessary to reduce time demands, improve salaries, and increase administrative support and support services. University preparation programs, pre service, and in-service training have to make more effort to better prepare potential candidates for principalship. New principals have to be prepared to face all aspects of their new jobs. They have to be prepared for longer working time, time pressures, how to deal with stress, budget cuts, and other tasks that draw large amounts o f principals' time.
Principals need good skills in leadership, management, in communication and the decision making process. Thus, if we want to attract new people into school administration, we must ensure that the job meets needs of those who are interested in entering the principalship.
To retain principals, we must enable principals to develop and utilize their expertise and ability. If job satisfaction is to remain high, we need to address problems principals face and look for ways to help them to work effectively and productively. It is necessary to reduce management tasks and to increase time for leadership. In spite of budget cuts and school financial problems, it would be useful for boards o f education and superintendents to hire assistant principals for schools with higher student populations.
More women are needed for the principalship, mainly at the high school level. In the 2004-2005 school year 35.5% of principals in Iowa were females. The research indicates that women principals are as efficient and productive as their male colleagues (Daft, 1999;Pigford & Tonnsen, 1993). The differences in sex are not related to the function of school management or leadership. Because of more culturally diverse student populations it is also necessary to hire minority principals. The current ethnical diverse number of principals is small in Iowa.
The findings o f this research provide insight into the job satisfaction of Iowa public school principals in 1999 and 2005. The results should be beneficial to state legislators, district adm inistrators, boards of education, and superintendents in redefining job responsibilities and for a better understanding of the complexity o f the job.

Recommendations for Further Study
As a result o f this investigation, the following recommendations are made for further study: 1. A follow-up study of randomly selected principals using the original Herzberg's interview technique to verify whether the Two-Factor Theory is valid, when the data are gathered using the original methodology in educational settings.
2. A replication study using the Job Descriptive Index, Job In General Scale, M innesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, or other instruments to expand the knowledge base on principal job satisfaction.
3. A follow-up study in private schools to see whether there is a difference in job satisfaction between private and public school principals in Iowa.

4.
A qualitative study to provide greater insight into the factors which impact job satisfaction of Iowa public school principals to obtain information on why principals are satisfied or dissatisfied in their jobs.
5. Longitudinal research after five years among Iowa public school principals to compare the job satisfaction results over a period of time.
8. W hat percent of your day is spent on educational leadership activities i.e., instructional leadership, evaluation, curriculum development, consensus building, data collection, data analysis, etc?
□ 0-5% □ 6-25% □ 26-45% □ 46%-65% □ more than 65% 9. W hat percent of your day is spent on management activities i.e. student discipline, scheduling, planning, supervising, personnel management, etc? □ 0-5% □ 6-25% □ 26-45% □ 46%-65% □ more than 65% June 30, 1999 in the next 1 -2 years in the next 3 -4 years in the next 5 -6 years several years from now 25. W hat could boards of education do to make the principalship more attractive to those considering this positions? D e a r Colleague: I am currently engaged in completing the research requirem ents for a doctoral d egree at the University of Northern Iowa. I am conducting a study of job satisfaction of Iowa elem entary, middle, and, high public school principals. Results will be com pared to an Iowa public school principals study done six years ago. I am working with Dr. David Else, Director of the Institute for Educational Leadership, who is m y adviser.
In recent d ecades, job satisfaction has been the th em e of num erous studies in both public and private organizations. As som e researchers report, the exam inations into the job satisfaction of school administrators have been frequently overlooked. Little attention has been given to job satisfaction am ong public school principals serving at elem entary and secondary levels.
O n a daily basis a wide variety of dem ands are being placed on principals. T h e legislature and taxpayers dem and m ore services, industry expects com petent workers, parents insist that social issues be addressed, and the public wants achievem ent scores to improve. As a result, principals m ay be incredibly pressed for time and energy. Determ ining the job satisfaction level of principals in Iowa m ay provide insight into the support that principals need in order to feel satisfaction in their jobs.
You m ay be assured of com plete confidentiality. Your individual identity and that of your school will be used to monitor the return of questionnaires but you will not be identified in the analysis and reporting data. All data will be studied as group data. No nam es will be attached to the questionnaires.
As to th e questionnaire, I believe you will find the instructions quite clear and understandable. Furtherm ore, your tim e involvem ent should be no m ore than 10 minutes. Risks of participation are minimal and there are no direct benefits.
If you should have an y specific questions, please free to call m e at 3 1 9 -2 7 3 -2 0 2 6 or the project investigator's faculty advisor, David Else, Director of the Institute for Educational Leadership, University of Northern Iow a, 3 1 9 -2 7 3 -3 3 5 8 . You can also contact the office of the H um an Participation Coordinator, University of Northern Iow a, at 3 1 9 -2 7 3 -2 7 4 8 , for answ ers to questions about rights of research participants and the participant review process.
I would like to express sincere appreciation to you for completing the questionnaire. Sincerely,

Boris S odom a Doctoral student P L E A S E R E T U R N T H IS Q U E S T IO N N A IR E IN T H E E N C L O S E D , S E L F -A D D R E S S E D , S T A M P E D E N V E L O P E B Y O ctober 3, 2 0 0 5
Boris S odom a Institute for Educational Leadership 6 2 9 Schindler Education C enter University of Northern Iowa C e d a r Falls, IA 5 0 6 1 4 -0 6 1 4